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A footnote here is never only a pointer. Every one carries a token saying what kind of thing it points to — a peer-reviewed paper, a company announcement, a court judgment — and the build fails if a citation is missing one. Those tokens were written to colour a badge at the foot of a single article. Collected from the 205 articles that cite anything, they describe the shape of the evidence this encyclopedia stands on, and a second link graph: the papers that join articles which never link to each other.
Identical citations are grouped by exact text and nothing else, which makes the deduplication deliberately conservative: the same paper written two ways counts twice. How this page counts.
The token is a claim about scrutiny, not about quality. A preprint can be excellent and a peer-reviewed paper can be wrong. It answers one question only — who, if anyone, examined the source before it was published — and that is the question a reader most often cannot answer from a citation alone.
One type has no entries: trial. A registry record documents a trial’s design and enrolment before any result exists, which makes it the right citation for “a trial is under way” and the wrong one for anything about the outcome. An unused type is a gap in the writing rather than a fact about the field.
114 citations appear in more than one article. These are the load-bearing results — where two pages rest on the same experiment, and the connection is invisible from either one. It is a different graph from the wikilinks: an article can share a founding paper with another it never mentions.
bookParfit, D. Reasons and Persons. Oxford University Press, 1984.
bookBostrom, N. Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press, 2014.
paperGuevara-Aguirre, J. et al. "Growth hormone receptor deficiency is associated with a major reduction in pro-aging signaling, cancer, and diabetes in humans." Science Translational Medicine, 2011.
A small Ecuadorian cohort; disease incidence fell but lifespan did not rise.The Ecuadorian cohort showed almost no cancer or diabetes, but no increase in average lifespan; other causes of death rose.paperKaravani, E. et al. "Screening Human Embryos for Polygenic Traits Has Limited Utility." Cell, 2019.
A modelling study: the gains are estimated, not observed in children born after polygenic selection.The gains are simulated from real sibling genotypes; no embryo was selected or transferred in the study.The headline figures assume a choice among ten embryos, more than a typical cycle yields, and scores of present-day accuracy.The modelled gains assume a choice among ten embryos, more than a typical stimulation cycle yields.paperLu, Y. et al. "Reprogramming to recover youthful epigenetic information and restore vision." Nature, 2020.
Mouse retina dosed by direct injection into an immune-privileged tissue, which is the easiest possible delivery target.paperOcampo, A. et al. "In Vivo Amelioration of Age-Associated Hallmarks by Partial Reprogramming." Cell, 2016.
The lifespan extension was in mice carrying a progeria mutation; effects reported in normally aging mice were smaller and not lifespan.The lifespan result is in a progeria mouse model; in wild-type mice the same protocol improved injury repair with no lifespan gain reported.Lifespan extension was in a progeria mouse model; in normally aging mice the paper reports short-term tissue measures, not longer life.The lifespan result is in mice carrying a progeria mutation; wild-type mice on the same schedule showed no reported lifespan benefit.paperBaltimore, D. et al. "A prudent path forward for genomic engineering and germline gene modification." Science, 2015.
A position piece by a group including Baltimore and Berg of the 1975 organising committee; it recommends a pause and carries no legal force.A commentary by the participants of a small meeting in Napa, California, urging that clinical germline use be discouraged while research continued; it carried no legal force.A commentary by the meeting's participants urging that clinical germline use be discouraged while research continued; it carried no legal force.paperBostrom, N. "Existential Risks: Analyzing Human Extinction Scenarios and Related Hazards." Journal of Evolution and Technology, 2002.
The paper that names the strategy states it in a short passage within a risk taxonomy; the elaboration all came later.The paper that named the field appeared in a small transhumanist journal, not in a mainstream risk or policy venue.Published in a small transhumanist-affiliated journal rather than a mainstream philosophy venue; its standing comes from later citation, not from where it appeared.paperBostrom, N. "In Defense of Posthuman Dignity." Bioethics, 2005.
paperBostrom, N. "The Vulnerable World Hypothesis." Global Policy, 2019.
bookde Grey, A. and Rae, M. Ending Aging: The Rejuvenation Breakthroughs That Could Reverse Human Aging in Our Lifetime. St. Martin's Press, 2007.
A trade book by the subject setting out his own programme; it argues that the repairs are feasible rather than reporting results.A popular exposition of the author's own research agenda; it sets out a programme rather than reporting results.bookFukuyama, F. Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002.
paperHarrison, D.E. et al. "Rapamycin fed late in life extends lifespan in genetically heterogeneous mice." Nature, 2009.
Treatment began at 20 months of age, and the median lifespan gain was larger in females than in males.Run at three independent sites on genetically heterogeneous mice, with dosing begun in late life; the gain is a percentage of median lifespan.The Interventions Testing Program ran this at three sites in genetically heterogeneous mice; dosing was continuous in food, not the intermittent schedule people take off-label.paperHiggins-Chen, A.T. et al. "A computational solution for bolstering reliability of epigenetic clocks." Nature Aging, 2022.
Addresses test-retest noise by rebuilding existing clocks on principal components; it does not establish that any of them measures aging.paperHochberg, L. R. et al. "Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia." Nature, 2006.
Centres on the first BrainGate participant, performing tasks in supervised laboratory sessions rather than in independent daily use.paperHorvath, S. "DNA methylation age of human tissues and cell types." Genome Biology, 2013.
Fitted to publicly available methylation datasets; the accuracy reported is against chronological age, the variable the model was trained on.The clock was trained to predict chronological age, so a reset reading in reprogrammed cells is a change in a predictor rather than a demonstrated change in the cell.Sole-authored, and built entirely from previously published datasets rather than new sample collection.paperMusunuru, K. et al. "Patient-specific in vivo gene editing to treat a rare genetic disease." New England Journal of Medicine, 2025.
A report of one infant treated under an individualised protocol, not a trial; it establishes feasibility rather than efficacy.A single-patient report in an infant, so it establishes feasibility and speed rather than efficacy or safety in any population.A single infant treated with a bespoke base editor. One patient establishes feasibility and cannot establish efficacy, durability, or safety.bookOrd, T. The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity. Bloomsbury, 2020.
A trade book for a general readership; the figures are one author's stated credences, not a peer-reviewed risk assessment.paperOrtiz-Catalan, M. et al. "Self-contained neuromusculoskeletal arm prostheses." New England Journal of Medicine, 2020.
A brief report on a small series of arm amputees using the system in daily life, with no control group and no randomization.reportPresident's Council on Bioethics. Beyond Therapy: Biotechnology and the Pursuit of Happiness. Washington, DC, 2003.
An advisory report to a US president, written by appointees of the administration that convened the council, not by a scientific consensus body.An advisory report from a body appointed by the US president and chaired by Leon Kass; it argues a philosophical case rather than reviewing evidence.paperSavulescu, J. "Procreative Beneficence: Why We Should Select the Best Children." Bioethics, 2001.
paperTakahashi, K. and Yamanaka, S. "Induction of Pluripotent Stem Cells from Mouse Embryonic and Adult Fibroblast Cultures by Defined Factors." Cell, 2006.
Mouse fibroblasts; the four factors were selected for their power to erase cell identity, which is the property NewLimit is trying to avoid.Selection in this first paper was on the Fbx15 marker, and those lines were not germline-competent; that came with Nanog-selected lines the following year.paperTakahashi, K. et al. "Induction of Pluripotent Stem Cells from Adult Human Fibroblasts by Defined Factors." Cell, 2007.
paperTurley, P. et al. "Problems with Using Polygenic Scores to Select Embryos." New England Journal of Medicine, 2021.
A critique setting out the limitations of embryo polygenic scores rather than reporting a new study of them.paperWillett, F. R. et al. "A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis." Nature, 2023.
A single participant with ALS and implanted electrode arrays; the rate is for attempted speech decoded from motor cortex, not for a healthy user.paperAbad, M. et al. "Reprogramming in vivo produces teratomas and iPS cells with totipotency features." Nature, 2013.
Sustained whole-body factor expression in mice; it fixes the ceiling on exposure and says nothing about where the tolerated dose sits.paperAguilera-Castrejon, A. et al. "Ex utero mouse embryogenesis from pre-gastrulation to late organogenesis." Nature, 2021.
The embryos were recovered from a uterus after implantation had already happened, so the system reproduces neither implantation nor placentation.newsAllen, P. and Greaves, M. "The Singularity Isn't Near." MIT Technology Review, 2011.
An opinion essay by two software figures in a technology magazine, not a research result; its claim is about software understanding rather than about the hardware curve.An opinion essay rather than a study; it argues from the history of scientific and software progress and reports no new measurements.paperArmstrong, S. and Sandberg, A. "Eternity in six hours: Intergalactic spreading of intelligent life and sharpening the Fermi paradox." Acta Astronautica, 2013.
An argument about physical limits that assumes technologies, self-replicating probes among them, which do not exist.paperBaylis, F., Darnovsky, M., Hasson, K., Krahn, T.M. "Human Germline and Heritable Genome Editing: The Global Policy Landscape." The CRISPR Journal, 2020.
A survey of policy instruments rather than of practice; the instruments it counts range from criminal statutes to guidelines with no sanction attached.paperBernardes de Jesus, B. et al. "Telomerase gene therapy in adult and old mice delays aging and increases longevity without increasing cancer." EMBO Molecular Medicine, 2012.
Laboratory mice have far longer telomeres than humans and express telomerase in more tissues, so the model may not transfer.Mice. The absence of extra cancer was an observation within a lifespan study, not the output of a dedicated carcinogenicity test.paperBerry, S.E. et al. "Human postprandial responses to food and potential for precision nutrition." Nature Medicine, 2020.
Reports within-person as well as between-person variation, so a single measured response is not a stable personal trait.paperBostrom, N. "A History of Transhumanist Thought." Journal of Evolution and Technology, 2005.
A history of the movement written by one of its founders and published in the journal the organization itself launched.A history written by a co-founder of the World Transhumanist Association, in a journal aligned with the movement.paperBostrom, N. "Are You Living in a Computer Simulation?" Philosophical Quarterly, 2003.
paperBrowder, K.C. et al. "In vivo partial reprogramming alters age-associated molecular changes during physiological aging in mice." Nature Aging, 2022.
bookChalmers, D. J. Reality+: Virtual Worlds and the Problems of Philosophy. W. W. Norton, 2022.
A general-audience philosophy book; the uploading discussion is one strand of a broader argument about virtual worlds.preprintChollet, F. "On the Measure of Intelligence." arXiv preprint, 2019.
Proposes a definition and a benchmark rather than reporting an experiment, and was posted without peer review.paperClark, A. and Chalmers, D. "The Extended Mind." Analysis, 1998.
preprintDell'Acqua, F. et al. "Navigating the Jagged Technological Frontier." Harvard Business School working paper, 2023.
A working paper reporting a field experiment with consultants at one firm, so the frontier it maps is specific to that task set.A working paper rather than a reviewed study; the task said to lie outside the model's competence was constructed by the researchers.paperDeuse, T. et al. "Hypoimmunogenic derivatives of induced pluripotent stem cells evade immune rejection in fully immunocompetent allogeneic recipients." Nature Biotechnology, 2019.
Immune evasion was demonstrated in mice and in cultured human cells; nothing here tests whether cloaked cells stay safe over years in a person.paperDorkenwald, S. et al. "Neuronal wiring diagram of an adult brain." Nature, 2024.
A structural reconstruction of one fly brain with predicted neurotransmitters; it carries no physiological recordings from the animal that was scanned.paperDouglas, S.M., Bachelet, I., Church, G.M. "A logic-gated nanorobot for targeted transport of molecular payloads." Science, 2012.
The AND-gated release was demonstrated on cultured cells in a dish; the mouse work that followed used a simpler single-aptamer trigger.Cultured cells, not an animal or a person; the device is a latch that opens on binding, with no onboard power, sensing, or motion.bookDrexler, K.E. Radical Abundance: How a Revolution in Nanotechnology Will Change Civilization. PublicAffairs, 2013.
paperFahy, G.M. et al. "Reversal of epigenetic aging and immunosenescent trends in humans." Aging Cell, 2019.
An uncontrolled study of nine men, run to test thymus regeneration rather than to test an intervention against a clock.Nine men, no control arm; the clock analysis was the study's headline result rather than its prespecified aim.paperFahy, G.M., Wowk, B., Pagotan, R. et al. "Physical and biological aspects of renal vitrification." Organogenesis, 2009.
paperFarr, J.N. et al. "Effects of intermittent senolytic therapy on bone metabolism in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial." Nature Medicine, 2024.
The trial reported signals in prespecified subgroups, which is hypothesis-generating rather than a demonstration of benefit.bookFirestone, S. The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution. Morrow, 1970.
paperFries, J.F. "Aging, Natural Death, and the Compression of Morbidity." New England Journal of Medicine, 1980.
paperGilja, V. et al. "A high-performance neural prosthesis enabled by control algorithm design." Nature Neuroscience, 2012.
paperGill, D. et al. "Multi-omic rejuvenation of human cells by maturation phase transient reprogramming." eLife, 2022.
Cultured human skin fibroblasts, not people; the rejuvenation is measured as transcriptomic and methylation age in the dish.Human cells in culture rather than human subjects; the endpoints are transcriptomic, methylation-based, and fibroblast function.paperGood, I.J. "Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine." Advances in Computers, vol. 6, 1965.
The source of the phrase intelligence explosion. The argument is entirely a priori: it describes a mechanism and offers no evidence that one can be built.paperGrosse, L. et al. "Defined p16High senescent cell types are indispensable for mouse healthspan." Cell Metabolism, 2020.
Clearance here was genetic and sustained rather than a short drug course, so the result bounds the hazard of indiscriminate clearance without measuring what an intermittent senolytic would do.bookHabermas, J. The Future of Human Nature. Polity Press, 2003.
paperHan, Z. et al. "Vitrification and nanowarming enable long-term organ cryopreservation and life-sustaining kidney transplantation in a rat model." Nature Communications, 2023.
The organ was a rat kidney rewarmed by heating infused magnetic nanoparticles; nothing of human-organ scale has been recovered by this route.paperHandyside, A. H. et al. "Pregnancies from biopsied human preimplantation embryos sexed by Y-specific DNA amplification." Nature, 1990.
The embryos were sexed rather than tested for the disease itself, which is why the first clinical uses were all X-linked conditions.paperHarris, J. "Moral Enhancement and Freedom." Bioethics, 2011.
bookHarris, J. Enhancing Evolution: The Ethical Case for Making Better People. Princeton University Press, 2007.
paperHashimoto, T. et al. "Extremotolerant tardigrade genome and improved radiotolerance of human cultured cells by tardigrade-unique protein." Nature Communications, 2016.
Dsup was tested in cultured human cells against X-rays, not against the heavy ions that dominate deep-space dose.The human-cell result is one experiment inside a genome paper, using strong overexpression in an immortalised line rather than a dedicated study.paperHe, Y. et al. "The Transcriptional Repressor DEC2 Regulates Sleep Length in Mammals." Science, 2009.
The human finding came from a single small family; the causal test was made in transgenic mice and flies carrying the same mutation.bookHughes, J. Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future. Westview Press, 2004.
An argument for one faction's position by a figure who led the organization, not a neutral account of it.reportInternational Commission on the Clinical Use of Human Germline Genome Editing. Heritable Human Genome Editing. US National Academy of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and the Royal Society, 2020.
Convened by academies rather than by a regulator, so its preconditions bind nobody and carry no licensing force.Convened by academies rather than by a regulator; it sets preconditions for a possible future use and endorses none.reportIUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN SSC Guiding Principles on Creating Proxy Species for Conservation Benefit. International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2016.
Guidance from a conservation body with no regulatory authority; it uses "proxy" throughout and sets a conservation-benefit test rather than a taxonomic one.Guidance from a conservation body with no regulatory authority; it binds no project and sets a conservation-benefit test rather than a taxonomic one.paperJinek, M., Chylinski, K., Fonfara, I., Hauer, M., Doudna, J. A. and Charpentier, E. "A Programmable Dual-RNA-Guided DNA Endonuclease in Adaptive Bacterial Immunity." Science, 2012.
Purified protein and RNA cutting DNA in a tube; the paper reports no experiment inside a living cell of any kind.The demonstration was biochemical, with purified components cutting DNA in a tube; editing inside human cells was reported by other groups months later.paperKoch, C., Massimini, M., Boly, M. and Tononi, G. "Neural correlates of consciousness: progress and problems." Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2016.
A review of the neural correlates literature by proponents of the theory, not a primary statement of integrated information theory or of the Phi formalism.paperKosicki, M., Tomberg, K., Bradley, A. "Repair of double-strand breaks induced by CRISPR–Cas9 leads to large deletions and complex rearrangements." Nature Biotechnology, 2018.
The large deletions were visible only because the authors used long-range assays; standard short-amplicon sequencing does not detect them.bookKurzweil, R. The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology. Viking, 2005.
paperLajoie, M. J. et al. "Genomically recoded organisms expand biological functions." Science, 2013.
The codons were replaced by editing a living strain rather than by synthesizing the genome, and the resulting resistance was to particular phages, not the broad resistance reported later.paperLeBlanc, A. et al. "Bisphosphonates as a supplement to exercise to protect bone during long-duration spaceflight." Osteoporosis International, 2013.
paperLevine, M.E. et al. "An epigenetic biomarker of aging for lifespan and healthspan." Aging, 2018.
paperLi, S. et al. "A DNA nanorobot functions as a cancer therapeutic in response to a molecular trigger in vivo." Nature Biotechnology, 2018.
The therapeutic effect is in tumour-bearing mice; nothing comparable has been reported in people.In vivo here means tumour-bearing mice; the structure is non-motile and delivers one payload on one trigger.paperLicklider, J. C. R. "Man-Computer Symbiosis." IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, 1960.
paperLópez-Otín, C., Blasco, M.A., Partridge, L., Serrano, M. and Kroemer, G. "Hallmarks of aging: An expanding universe." Cell, 2023.
paperLorach, H. et al. "Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain–spine interface." Nature, 2023.
A single participant who had already undergone spinal stimulation and rehabilitation, which complicates attributing the residual recovery to the brain-spine link.paperLu, A.T. et al. "DNA methylation GrimAge strongly predicts lifespan and healthspan." Aging, 2019.
paperLu, A.T. et al. "Universal DNA methylation age across mammalian tissues." Nature Aging, 2023.
paperMa, H. et al. "Correction of a pathogenic gene mutation in human embryos." Nature, 2017.
Other groups argued the apparent correction reflected allele dropout rather than interhomolog repair; the interpretation is still disputed.paperMaher, B. "Poll results: look who's doping." Nature, 2008.
An informal poll of self-selected journal readers with no defined sampling frame, reported in a news section rather than as research.A self-selected online poll of Nature readers rather than a representative survey, so the one-in-five figure has no sampling frame behind it.paperMandai, M. et al. "Autologous Induced Stem-Cell-Derived Retinal Cells for Macular Degeneration." New England Journal of Medicine, 2017.
A single treated patient; the reported outcome is graft survival and disease stabilisation, not improved vision.One patient received the autologous graft; the second planned recipient was not treated after genomic changes were found in the prepared cells.paperMerkle, R.C. "The Molecular Repair of the Brain." Cryonics, 1994.
Cryonics is the magazine published by the organization this article describes, so the argument appears in a house venue rather than a reviewed one.Published in a cryonics movement magazine rather than a peer-reviewed journal; it proposes a criterion for death and reports no experiment.paperMetzger, S. L. et al. "A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control." Nature, 2023.
One participant, severely paralysed after a brainstem stroke; the rates reported are for a decoder trained on her own attempted speech in laboratory sessions.bookMoravec, H. Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence. Harvard University Press, 1988.
paperMore, M. "Transhumanism: Toward a Futurist Philosophy." Extropy, 1990.
Published in the movement's own journal rather than an academic venue, and framed as a stance to adopt rather than a claim to test.Published in the magazine More co-founded; a statement of the extropian position rather than an independent account of it.bookMore, M. and Vita-More, N. (eds.) The Transhumanist Reader. Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
paperMoses, D. A. et al. "Neuroprosthesis for decoding speech in a paralyzed person with anarthria." New England Journal of Medicine, 2021.
paperMunné, S. et al. "Preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy versus morphology as selection criteria for single frozen-thawed embryo transfer in good-prognosis patients: a multicenter randomized clinical trial." Fertility and Sterility, 2019.
paperNiu, D. et al. "Inactivation of porcine endogenous retrovirus in pigs using CRISPR-Cas9." Science, 2017.
The paper reports live piglets with the retroviral sequences removed; it reports no transplant into a primate or a person.paperNordhaus, W. "Are We Approaching an Economic Singularity? Information Technology and the Future of Economic Growth." International Economic Review, 2021.
The tests run on macroeconomic aggregates such as productivity and capital share, so they bear on economic growth rather than on machine capability.bookNozick, R. Philosophical Explanations. Harvard University Press, 1981.
paperOkbay, A. et al. "Polygenic prediction of educational attainment within and between families from genome-wide association analyses in 3 million individuals." Nature Genetics, 2022.
The sample is of European ancestry, and scores built from it predict substantially worse in other ancestry groups.paperOlova, N., Simpson, D.J., Marioni, R.E., Chandra, T. "Partial reprogramming induces a steady decline in epigenetic age before loss of somatic identity." Aging Cell, 2019.
paperOlshansky, S.J., Perry, D., Miller, R.A., Butler, R.N. "In pursuit of the longevity dividend." The Scientist, 2006.
An essay in a science magazine making an economic case for funding aging research, not an empirical study.A position piece proposing a research policy; the seven-year delay is a stipulated scenario rather than a result from any study.paperPartridge, E. A. et al. "An extra-uterine system to physiologically support the extreme premature lamb." Nature Communications, 2017.
Eight preterm lambs supported for up to four weeks; the animals were euthanised at the end of support, so the study measures growth and not later development.Eight preterm lambs supported for up to four weeks; sheep only, and the animals were euthanised at the end of support.paperPerez, M.V. et al. "Large-Scale Assessment of a Smartwatch to Identify Atrial Fibrillation." New England Journal of Medicine, 2019.
A single-arm study without a control group, so it measures detection rather than any benefit from detecting.The cohort was self-selected and skewed young, unlike the older populations in which atrial fibrillation screening is usually considered.paperPersson, I. and Savulescu, J. "The Perils of Cognitive Enhancement and the Urgent Imperative to Enhance the Moral Character of Humanity." Journal of Applied Philosophy, 2008.
A philosophical argument for a research direction; it reports no data on any intervention that alters moral behaviour.newsRegalado, A. "A startup is pitching a mind-uploading service that is '100 percent fatal'." MIT Technology Review, 2018.
Reporting on a startup's proposed service and the reaction to it; it describes a business plan, not a scientific result.Reports a company's pitch and the university's response; it is evidence about what was offered, not that any mind was preserved.paperRomanis, E. C. "Artificial womb technology and the frontiers of human reproduction: conceptual differences and potential implications." Journal of Medical Ethics, 2018.
A legal scholar's proposal for a new category; gestateling has no statutory standing in any jurisdiction.paperRuby, J.G., Smith, M. and Buffenstein, R. "Naked Mole-Rat mortality rates defy Gompertzian laws by not increasing with age." eLife, 2018.
The records come from captive animals in laboratory colonies, not from a wild population.paperSahel, J.-A. et al. "Partial recovery of visual function in a blind patient after optogenetic therapy." Nature Medicine, 2021.
A single patient from an ongoing trial, tested on locating and counting objects while wearing the stimulating goggles; there is no control comparison.One patient, and the reported visual improvement occurred only with the stimulating goggles in place and after months of training.reportSandberg, A. and Bostrom, N. "Whole Brain Emulation: A Roadmap." Technical Report 2008-3, Future of Humanity Institute, University of Oxford, 2008.
A workshop document setting out what emulation would require at each level of detail; it maps requirements and reports no experiment.An institute technical report, not a peer-reviewed paper; its requirement estimates are conditional on an assumed level of detail.paperSchrag, D. et al. "Blood-based tests for multicancer early detection (PATHFINDER): a prospective cohort study." The Lancet, 2023.
A single-arm study of test performance and diagnostic workup, not a trial of outcomes.A single-arm cohort with no unscreened comparison group, so it reports how the test performed and cannot show whether screening changed any outcome.paperShulman, C. and Bostrom, N. "Embryo Selection for Cognitive Enhancement: Curiosity or Game-changer?" Global Policy, 2014.
A theoretical analysis of what selection could deliver under stated genetic assumptions; it reports no experiment and predates current predictor accuracy.paperSibonga, J.D. et al. "Recovery of spaceflight-induced bone loss: bone mineral density after long-duration missions as fitted with an exponential function." Bone, 2007.
Fits a recovery curve to post-flight bone mineral density readings; density is not the same as the bone architecture that governs fracture risk.paperSparrow, B., Liu, J. and Wegner, D. M. "Google Effects on Memory: Cognitive Consequences of Having Information at Our Fingertips." Science, 2011.
paperStrohminger, N. and Nichols, S. "The essential moral self." Cognition, 2014.
Vignette experiments with lay participants: evidence about what people judge identity to consist in, not about what it does consist in.paperTuring, A. M. "Computing Machinery and Intelligence." Mind, 1950.
paperVansteensel, M. J. et al. "Fully implanted brain–computer interface in a locked-in patient with ALS." New England Journal of Medicine, 2016.
A single participant; what the report establishes is sustained unattended home use at a very low bit rate, not decoding performance.paperVerlinsky, Y. et al. "Preimplantation diagnosis for Fanconi anemia combined with HLA matching." JAMA, 2001.
paperVinge, V. "The Coming Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post-Human Era." VISION-21 Symposium, 1993.
An essay presented at a NASA-sponsored symposium rather than a reviewed paper; it predicted the means to create superhuman intelligence within thirty years.paperVita-More, N. and Barranco, D. "Persistence of Long-Term Memory in Vitrified and Revived Caenorhabditis elegans." Rejuvenation Research, 2015.
The animal has 302 neurons and the assay is a single learned odour association, which is a long way from a mammalian memory.Rejuvenation Research is a small journal edited from within the life-extension community, and the result covers one nematode species with 302 neurons.paperWaziry, R. et al. "Effect of long-term caloric restriction on DNA methylation measures of biological aging in healthy adults from the CALERIE trial." Nature Aging, 2023.
An analysis of stored samples from a trial designed to test caloric restriction, not to validate the clocks.paperWhite, J. G., Southgate, E., Thomson, J. N. and Brenner, S. "The structure of the nervous system of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 1986.
The reconstruction was assembled by hand from sections of more than one animal, so it is a composite rather than one individual's wiring.newsWolf, G. "The Data-Driven Life." The New York Times Magazine, 2010.
Wolf is one of the two editors who named the quantified-self movement, so the piece is a participant's account of it.Wolf co-coined the term, so the piece is a participant's account of the movement rather than an outside assessment of it.paperXie, L. et al. "Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain." Science, 2013.
In mice, with much of the clearance measurement made under anaesthesia rather than natural sleep.paperZeevi, D. et al. "Personalized Nutrition by Prediction of Glycemic Responses." Cell, 2015.
The endpoint was the postprandial glucose curve itself over a short period, not weight, disease incidence, or any other health outcome.Establishes between-person variation in a physiological response, not that acting on the variation improves any clinical outcome.Every distinct source in the corpus, most-cited first. Nothing was selected for this list: it is the reference section of 205 articles, concatenated and grouped.
1050 sources
bookParfit, D. Reasons and Persons. Oxford University Press, 1984.
bookBostrom, N. Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press, 2014.
paperGuevara-Aguirre, J. et al. "Growth hormone receptor deficiency is associated with a major reduction in pro-aging signaling, cancer, and diabetes in humans." Science Translational Medicine, 2011.
A small Ecuadorian cohort; disease incidence fell but lifespan did not rise.The Ecuadorian cohort showed almost no cancer or diabetes, but no increase in average lifespan; other causes of death rose.paperKaravani, E. et al. "Screening Human Embryos for Polygenic Traits Has Limited Utility." Cell, 2019.
A modelling study: the gains are estimated, not observed in children born after polygenic selection.The gains are simulated from real sibling genotypes; no embryo was selected or transferred in the study.The headline figures assume a choice among ten embryos, more than a typical cycle yields, and scores of present-day accuracy.The modelled gains assume a choice among ten embryos, more than a typical stimulation cycle yields.paperLu, Y. et al. "Reprogramming to recover youthful epigenetic information and restore vision." Nature, 2020.
Mouse retina dosed by direct injection into an immune-privileged tissue, which is the easiest possible delivery target.paperOcampo, A. et al. "In Vivo Amelioration of Age-Associated Hallmarks by Partial Reprogramming." Cell, 2016.
The lifespan extension was in mice carrying a progeria mutation; effects reported in normally aging mice were smaller and not lifespan.The lifespan result is in a progeria mouse model; in wild-type mice the same protocol improved injury repair with no lifespan gain reported.Lifespan extension was in a progeria mouse model; in normally aging mice the paper reports short-term tissue measures, not longer life.The lifespan result is in mice carrying a progeria mutation; wild-type mice on the same schedule showed no reported lifespan benefit.paperBaltimore, D. et al. "A prudent path forward for genomic engineering and germline gene modification." Science, 2015.
A position piece by a group including Baltimore and Berg of the 1975 organising committee; it recommends a pause and carries no legal force.A commentary by the participants of a small meeting in Napa, California, urging that clinical germline use be discouraged while research continued; it carried no legal force.A commentary by the meeting's participants urging that clinical germline use be discouraged while research continued; it carried no legal force.paperBostrom, N. "Existential Risks: Analyzing Human Extinction Scenarios and Related Hazards." Journal of Evolution and Technology, 2002.
The paper that names the strategy states it in a short passage within a risk taxonomy; the elaboration all came later.The paper that named the field appeared in a small transhumanist journal, not in a mainstream risk or policy venue.Published in a small transhumanist-affiliated journal rather than a mainstream philosophy venue; its standing comes from later citation, not from where it appeared.paperBostrom, N. "In Defense of Posthuman Dignity." Bioethics, 2005.
paperBostrom, N. "The Vulnerable World Hypothesis." Global Policy, 2019.
bookde Grey, A. and Rae, M. Ending Aging: The Rejuvenation Breakthroughs That Could Reverse Human Aging in Our Lifetime. St. Martin's Press, 2007.
A trade book by the subject setting out his own programme; it argues that the repairs are feasible rather than reporting results.A popular exposition of the author's own research agenda; it sets out a programme rather than reporting results.bookFukuyama, F. Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002.
paperHarrison, D.E. et al. "Rapamycin fed late in life extends lifespan in genetically heterogeneous mice." Nature, 2009.
Treatment began at 20 months of age, and the median lifespan gain was larger in females than in males.Run at three independent sites on genetically heterogeneous mice, with dosing begun in late life; the gain is a percentage of median lifespan.The Interventions Testing Program ran this at three sites in genetically heterogeneous mice; dosing was continuous in food, not the intermittent schedule people take off-label.paperHiggins-Chen, A.T. et al. "A computational solution for bolstering reliability of epigenetic clocks." Nature Aging, 2022.
Addresses test-retest noise by rebuilding existing clocks on principal components; it does not establish that any of them measures aging.paperHochberg, L. R. et al. "Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia." Nature, 2006.
Centres on the first BrainGate participant, performing tasks in supervised laboratory sessions rather than in independent daily use.paperHorvath, S. "DNA methylation age of human tissues and cell types." Genome Biology, 2013.
Fitted to publicly available methylation datasets; the accuracy reported is against chronological age, the variable the model was trained on.The clock was trained to predict chronological age, so a reset reading in reprogrammed cells is a change in a predictor rather than a demonstrated change in the cell.Sole-authored, and built entirely from previously published datasets rather than new sample collection.paperMusunuru, K. et al. "Patient-specific in vivo gene editing to treat a rare genetic disease." New England Journal of Medicine, 2025.
A report of one infant treated under an individualised protocol, not a trial; it establishes feasibility rather than efficacy.A single-patient report in an infant, so it establishes feasibility and speed rather than efficacy or safety in any population.A single infant treated with a bespoke base editor. One patient establishes feasibility and cannot establish efficacy, durability, or safety.bookOrd, T. The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity. Bloomsbury, 2020.
A trade book for a general readership; the figures are one author's stated credences, not a peer-reviewed risk assessment.paperOrtiz-Catalan, M. et al. "Self-contained neuromusculoskeletal arm prostheses." New England Journal of Medicine, 2020.
A brief report on a small series of arm amputees using the system in daily life, with no control group and no randomization.reportPresident's Council on Bioethics. Beyond Therapy: Biotechnology and the Pursuit of Happiness. Washington, DC, 2003.
An advisory report to a US president, written by appointees of the administration that convened the council, not by a scientific consensus body.An advisory report from a body appointed by the US president and chaired by Leon Kass; it argues a philosophical case rather than reviewing evidence.paperSavulescu, J. "Procreative Beneficence: Why We Should Select the Best Children." Bioethics, 2001.
paperTakahashi, K. and Yamanaka, S. "Induction of Pluripotent Stem Cells from Mouse Embryonic and Adult Fibroblast Cultures by Defined Factors." Cell, 2006.
Mouse fibroblasts; the four factors were selected for their power to erase cell identity, which is the property NewLimit is trying to avoid.Selection in this first paper was on the Fbx15 marker, and those lines were not germline-competent; that came with Nanog-selected lines the following year.paperTakahashi, K. et al. "Induction of Pluripotent Stem Cells from Adult Human Fibroblasts by Defined Factors." Cell, 2007.
paperTurley, P. et al. "Problems with Using Polygenic Scores to Select Embryos." New England Journal of Medicine, 2021.
A critique setting out the limitations of embryo polygenic scores rather than reporting a new study of them.paperWillett, F. R. et al. "A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis." Nature, 2023.
A single participant with ALS and implanted electrode arrays; the rate is for attempted speech decoded from motor cortex, not for a healthy user.paperAbad, M. et al. "Reprogramming in vivo produces teratomas and iPS cells with totipotency features." Nature, 2013.
Sustained whole-body factor expression in mice; it fixes the ceiling on exposure and says nothing about where the tolerated dose sits.paperAguilera-Castrejon, A. et al. "Ex utero mouse embryogenesis from pre-gastrulation to late organogenesis." Nature, 2021.
The embryos were recovered from a uterus after implantation had already happened, so the system reproduces neither implantation nor placentation.newsAllen, P. and Greaves, M. "The Singularity Isn't Near." MIT Technology Review, 2011.
An opinion essay by two software figures in a technology magazine, not a research result; its claim is about software understanding rather than about the hardware curve.An opinion essay rather than a study; it argues from the history of scientific and software progress and reports no new measurements.paperArmstrong, S. and Sandberg, A. "Eternity in six hours: Intergalactic spreading of intelligent life and sharpening the Fermi paradox." Acta Astronautica, 2013.
An argument about physical limits that assumes technologies, self-replicating probes among them, which do not exist.paperBaylis, F., Darnovsky, M., Hasson, K., Krahn, T.M. "Human Germline and Heritable Genome Editing: The Global Policy Landscape." The CRISPR Journal, 2020.
A survey of policy instruments rather than of practice; the instruments it counts range from criminal statutes to guidelines with no sanction attached.paperBernardes de Jesus, B. et al. "Telomerase gene therapy in adult and old mice delays aging and increases longevity without increasing cancer." EMBO Molecular Medicine, 2012.
Laboratory mice have far longer telomeres than humans and express telomerase in more tissues, so the model may not transfer.Mice. The absence of extra cancer was an observation within a lifespan study, not the output of a dedicated carcinogenicity test.paperBerry, S.E. et al. "Human postprandial responses to food and potential for precision nutrition." Nature Medicine, 2020.
Reports within-person as well as between-person variation, so a single measured response is not a stable personal trait.paperBostrom, N. "A History of Transhumanist Thought." Journal of Evolution and Technology, 2005.
A history of the movement written by one of its founders and published in the journal the organization itself launched.A history written by a co-founder of the World Transhumanist Association, in a journal aligned with the movement.paperBostrom, N. "Are You Living in a Computer Simulation?" Philosophical Quarterly, 2003.
paperBrowder, K.C. et al. "In vivo partial reprogramming alters age-associated molecular changes during physiological aging in mice." Nature Aging, 2022.
bookChalmers, D. J. Reality+: Virtual Worlds and the Problems of Philosophy. W. W. Norton, 2022.
A general-audience philosophy book; the uploading discussion is one strand of a broader argument about virtual worlds.preprintChollet, F. "On the Measure of Intelligence." arXiv preprint, 2019.
Proposes a definition and a benchmark rather than reporting an experiment, and was posted without peer review.paperClark, A. and Chalmers, D. "The Extended Mind." Analysis, 1998.
preprintDell'Acqua, F. et al. "Navigating the Jagged Technological Frontier." Harvard Business School working paper, 2023.
A working paper reporting a field experiment with consultants at one firm, so the frontier it maps is specific to that task set.A working paper rather than a reviewed study; the task said to lie outside the model's competence was constructed by the researchers.paperDeuse, T. et al. "Hypoimmunogenic derivatives of induced pluripotent stem cells evade immune rejection in fully immunocompetent allogeneic recipients." Nature Biotechnology, 2019.
Immune evasion was demonstrated in mice and in cultured human cells; nothing here tests whether cloaked cells stay safe over years in a person.paperDorkenwald, S. et al. "Neuronal wiring diagram of an adult brain." Nature, 2024.
A structural reconstruction of one fly brain with predicted neurotransmitters; it carries no physiological recordings from the animal that was scanned.paperDouglas, S.M., Bachelet, I., Church, G.M. "A logic-gated nanorobot for targeted transport of molecular payloads." Science, 2012.
The AND-gated release was demonstrated on cultured cells in a dish; the mouse work that followed used a simpler single-aptamer trigger.Cultured cells, not an animal or a person; the device is a latch that opens on binding, with no onboard power, sensing, or motion.bookDrexler, K.E. Radical Abundance: How a Revolution in Nanotechnology Will Change Civilization. PublicAffairs, 2013.
paperFahy, G.M. et al. "Reversal of epigenetic aging and immunosenescent trends in humans." Aging Cell, 2019.
An uncontrolled study of nine men, run to test thymus regeneration rather than to test an intervention against a clock.Nine men, no control arm; the clock analysis was the study's headline result rather than its prespecified aim.paperFahy, G.M., Wowk, B., Pagotan, R. et al. "Physical and biological aspects of renal vitrification." Organogenesis, 2009.
paperFarr, J.N. et al. "Effects of intermittent senolytic therapy on bone metabolism in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial." Nature Medicine, 2024.
The trial reported signals in prespecified subgroups, which is hypothesis-generating rather than a demonstration of benefit.bookFirestone, S. The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution. Morrow, 1970.
paperFries, J.F. "Aging, Natural Death, and the Compression of Morbidity." New England Journal of Medicine, 1980.
paperGilja, V. et al. "A high-performance neural prosthesis enabled by control algorithm design." Nature Neuroscience, 2012.
paperGill, D. et al. "Multi-omic rejuvenation of human cells by maturation phase transient reprogramming." eLife, 2022.
Cultured human skin fibroblasts, not people; the rejuvenation is measured as transcriptomic and methylation age in the dish.Human cells in culture rather than human subjects; the endpoints are transcriptomic, methylation-based, and fibroblast function.paperGood, I.J. "Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine." Advances in Computers, vol. 6, 1965.
The source of the phrase intelligence explosion. The argument is entirely a priori: it describes a mechanism and offers no evidence that one can be built.paperGrosse, L. et al. "Defined p16High senescent cell types are indispensable for mouse healthspan." Cell Metabolism, 2020.
Clearance here was genetic and sustained rather than a short drug course, so the result bounds the hazard of indiscriminate clearance without measuring what an intermittent senolytic would do.bookHabermas, J. The Future of Human Nature. Polity Press, 2003.
paperHan, Z. et al. "Vitrification and nanowarming enable long-term organ cryopreservation and life-sustaining kidney transplantation in a rat model." Nature Communications, 2023.
The organ was a rat kidney rewarmed by heating infused magnetic nanoparticles; nothing of human-organ scale has been recovered by this route.paperHandyside, A. H. et al. "Pregnancies from biopsied human preimplantation embryos sexed by Y-specific DNA amplification." Nature, 1990.
The embryos were sexed rather than tested for the disease itself, which is why the first clinical uses were all X-linked conditions.paperHarris, J. "Moral Enhancement and Freedom." Bioethics, 2011.
bookHarris, J. Enhancing Evolution: The Ethical Case for Making Better People. Princeton University Press, 2007.
paperHashimoto, T. et al. "Extremotolerant tardigrade genome and improved radiotolerance of human cultured cells by tardigrade-unique protein." Nature Communications, 2016.
Dsup was tested in cultured human cells against X-rays, not against the heavy ions that dominate deep-space dose.The human-cell result is one experiment inside a genome paper, using strong overexpression in an immortalised line rather than a dedicated study.paperHe, Y. et al. "The Transcriptional Repressor DEC2 Regulates Sleep Length in Mammals." Science, 2009.
The human finding came from a single small family; the causal test was made in transgenic mice and flies carrying the same mutation.bookHughes, J. Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future. Westview Press, 2004.
An argument for one faction's position by a figure who led the organization, not a neutral account of it.reportInternational Commission on the Clinical Use of Human Germline Genome Editing. Heritable Human Genome Editing. US National Academy of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and the Royal Society, 2020.
Convened by academies rather than by a regulator, so its preconditions bind nobody and carry no licensing force.Convened by academies rather than by a regulator; it sets preconditions for a possible future use and endorses none.reportIUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN SSC Guiding Principles on Creating Proxy Species for Conservation Benefit. International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2016.
Guidance from a conservation body with no regulatory authority; it uses "proxy" throughout and sets a conservation-benefit test rather than a taxonomic one.Guidance from a conservation body with no regulatory authority; it binds no project and sets a conservation-benefit test rather than a taxonomic one.paperJinek, M., Chylinski, K., Fonfara, I., Hauer, M., Doudna, J. A. and Charpentier, E. "A Programmable Dual-RNA-Guided DNA Endonuclease in Adaptive Bacterial Immunity." Science, 2012.
Purified protein and RNA cutting DNA in a tube; the paper reports no experiment inside a living cell of any kind.The demonstration was biochemical, with purified components cutting DNA in a tube; editing inside human cells was reported by other groups months later.paperKoch, C., Massimini, M., Boly, M. and Tononi, G. "Neural correlates of consciousness: progress and problems." Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2016.
A review of the neural correlates literature by proponents of the theory, not a primary statement of integrated information theory or of the Phi formalism.paperKosicki, M., Tomberg, K., Bradley, A. "Repair of double-strand breaks induced by CRISPR–Cas9 leads to large deletions and complex rearrangements." Nature Biotechnology, 2018.
The large deletions were visible only because the authors used long-range assays; standard short-amplicon sequencing does not detect them.bookKurzweil, R. The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology. Viking, 2005.
paperLajoie, M. J. et al. "Genomically recoded organisms expand biological functions." Science, 2013.
The codons were replaced by editing a living strain rather than by synthesizing the genome, and the resulting resistance was to particular phages, not the broad resistance reported later.paperLeBlanc, A. et al. "Bisphosphonates as a supplement to exercise to protect bone during long-duration spaceflight." Osteoporosis International, 2013.
paperLevine, M.E. et al. "An epigenetic biomarker of aging for lifespan and healthspan." Aging, 2018.
paperLi, S. et al. "A DNA nanorobot functions as a cancer therapeutic in response to a molecular trigger in vivo." Nature Biotechnology, 2018.
The therapeutic effect is in tumour-bearing mice; nothing comparable has been reported in people.In vivo here means tumour-bearing mice; the structure is non-motile and delivers one payload on one trigger.paperLicklider, J. C. R. "Man-Computer Symbiosis." IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, 1960.
paperLópez-Otín, C., Blasco, M.A., Partridge, L., Serrano, M. and Kroemer, G. "Hallmarks of aging: An expanding universe." Cell, 2023.
paperLorach, H. et al. "Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain–spine interface." Nature, 2023.
A single participant who had already undergone spinal stimulation and rehabilitation, which complicates attributing the residual recovery to the brain-spine link.paperLu, A.T. et al. "DNA methylation GrimAge strongly predicts lifespan and healthspan." Aging, 2019.
paperLu, A.T. et al. "Universal DNA methylation age across mammalian tissues." Nature Aging, 2023.
paperMa, H. et al. "Correction of a pathogenic gene mutation in human embryos." Nature, 2017.
Other groups argued the apparent correction reflected allele dropout rather than interhomolog repair; the interpretation is still disputed.paperMaher, B. "Poll results: look who's doping." Nature, 2008.
An informal poll of self-selected journal readers with no defined sampling frame, reported in a news section rather than as research.A self-selected online poll of Nature readers rather than a representative survey, so the one-in-five figure has no sampling frame behind it.paperMandai, M. et al. "Autologous Induced Stem-Cell-Derived Retinal Cells for Macular Degeneration." New England Journal of Medicine, 2017.
A single treated patient; the reported outcome is graft survival and disease stabilisation, not improved vision.One patient received the autologous graft; the second planned recipient was not treated after genomic changes were found in the prepared cells.paperMerkle, R.C. "The Molecular Repair of the Brain." Cryonics, 1994.
Cryonics is the magazine published by the organization this article describes, so the argument appears in a house venue rather than a reviewed one.Published in a cryonics movement magazine rather than a peer-reviewed journal; it proposes a criterion for death and reports no experiment.paperMetzger, S. L. et al. "A high-performance neuroprosthesis for speech decoding and avatar control." Nature, 2023.
One participant, severely paralysed after a brainstem stroke; the rates reported are for a decoder trained on her own attempted speech in laboratory sessions.bookMoravec, H. Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence. Harvard University Press, 1988.
paperMore, M. "Transhumanism: Toward a Futurist Philosophy." Extropy, 1990.
Published in the movement's own journal rather than an academic venue, and framed as a stance to adopt rather than a claim to test.Published in the magazine More co-founded; a statement of the extropian position rather than an independent account of it.bookMore, M. and Vita-More, N. (eds.) The Transhumanist Reader. Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
paperMoses, D. A. et al. "Neuroprosthesis for decoding speech in a paralyzed person with anarthria." New England Journal of Medicine, 2021.
paperMunné, S. et al. "Preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy versus morphology as selection criteria for single frozen-thawed embryo transfer in good-prognosis patients: a multicenter randomized clinical trial." Fertility and Sterility, 2019.
paperNiu, D. et al. "Inactivation of porcine endogenous retrovirus in pigs using CRISPR-Cas9." Science, 2017.
The paper reports live piglets with the retroviral sequences removed; it reports no transplant into a primate or a person.paperNordhaus, W. "Are We Approaching an Economic Singularity? Information Technology and the Future of Economic Growth." International Economic Review, 2021.
The tests run on macroeconomic aggregates such as productivity and capital share, so they bear on economic growth rather than on machine capability.bookNozick, R. Philosophical Explanations. Harvard University Press, 1981.
paperOkbay, A. et al. "Polygenic prediction of educational attainment within and between families from genome-wide association analyses in 3 million individuals." Nature Genetics, 2022.
The sample is of European ancestry, and scores built from it predict substantially worse in other ancestry groups.paperOlova, N., Simpson, D.J., Marioni, R.E., Chandra, T. "Partial reprogramming induces a steady decline in epigenetic age before loss of somatic identity." Aging Cell, 2019.
paperOlshansky, S.J., Perry, D., Miller, R.A., Butler, R.N. "In pursuit of the longevity dividend." The Scientist, 2006.
An essay in a science magazine making an economic case for funding aging research, not an empirical study.A position piece proposing a research policy; the seven-year delay is a stipulated scenario rather than a result from any study.paperPartridge, E. A. et al. "An extra-uterine system to physiologically support the extreme premature lamb." Nature Communications, 2017.
Eight preterm lambs supported for up to four weeks; the animals were euthanised at the end of support, so the study measures growth and not later development.Eight preterm lambs supported for up to four weeks; sheep only, and the animals were euthanised at the end of support.paperPerez, M.V. et al. "Large-Scale Assessment of a Smartwatch to Identify Atrial Fibrillation." New England Journal of Medicine, 2019.
A single-arm study without a control group, so it measures detection rather than any benefit from detecting.The cohort was self-selected and skewed young, unlike the older populations in which atrial fibrillation screening is usually considered.paperPersson, I. and Savulescu, J. "The Perils of Cognitive Enhancement and the Urgent Imperative to Enhance the Moral Character of Humanity." Journal of Applied Philosophy, 2008.
A philosophical argument for a research direction; it reports no data on any intervention that alters moral behaviour.newsRegalado, A. "A startup is pitching a mind-uploading service that is '100 percent fatal'." MIT Technology Review, 2018.
Reporting on a startup's proposed service and the reaction to it; it describes a business plan, not a scientific result.Reports a company's pitch and the university's response; it is evidence about what was offered, not that any mind was preserved.paperRomanis, E. C. "Artificial womb technology and the frontiers of human reproduction: conceptual differences and potential implications." Journal of Medical Ethics, 2018.
A legal scholar's proposal for a new category; gestateling has no statutory standing in any jurisdiction.paperRuby, J.G., Smith, M. and Buffenstein, R. "Naked Mole-Rat mortality rates defy Gompertzian laws by not increasing with age." eLife, 2018.
The records come from captive animals in laboratory colonies, not from a wild population.paperSahel, J.-A. et al. "Partial recovery of visual function in a blind patient after optogenetic therapy." Nature Medicine, 2021.
A single patient from an ongoing trial, tested on locating and counting objects while wearing the stimulating goggles; there is no control comparison.One patient, and the reported visual improvement occurred only with the stimulating goggles in place and after months of training.reportSandberg, A. and Bostrom, N. "Whole Brain Emulation: A Roadmap." Technical Report 2008-3, Future of Humanity Institute, University of Oxford, 2008.
A workshop document setting out what emulation would require at each level of detail; it maps requirements and reports no experiment.An institute technical report, not a peer-reviewed paper; its requirement estimates are conditional on an assumed level of detail.paperSchrag, D. et al. "Blood-based tests for multicancer early detection (PATHFINDER): a prospective cohort study." The Lancet, 2023.
A single-arm study of test performance and diagnostic workup, not a trial of outcomes.A single-arm cohort with no unscreened comparison group, so it reports how the test performed and cannot show whether screening changed any outcome.paperShulman, C. and Bostrom, N. "Embryo Selection for Cognitive Enhancement: Curiosity or Game-changer?" Global Policy, 2014.
A theoretical analysis of what selection could deliver under stated genetic assumptions; it reports no experiment and predates current predictor accuracy.paperSibonga, J.D. et al. "Recovery of spaceflight-induced bone loss: bone mineral density after long-duration missions as fitted with an exponential function." Bone, 2007.
Fits a recovery curve to post-flight bone mineral density readings; density is not the same as the bone architecture that governs fracture risk.paperSparrow, B., Liu, J. and Wegner, D. M. "Google Effects on Memory: Cognitive Consequences of Having Information at Our Fingertips." Science, 2011.
paperStrohminger, N. and Nichols, S. "The essential moral self." Cognition, 2014.
Vignette experiments with lay participants: evidence about what people judge identity to consist in, not about what it does consist in.paperTuring, A. M. "Computing Machinery and Intelligence." Mind, 1950.
paperVansteensel, M. J. et al. "Fully implanted brain–computer interface in a locked-in patient with ALS." New England Journal of Medicine, 2016.
A single participant; what the report establishes is sustained unattended home use at a very low bit rate, not decoding performance.paperVerlinsky, Y. et al. "Preimplantation diagnosis for Fanconi anemia combined with HLA matching." JAMA, 2001.
paperVinge, V. "The Coming Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post-Human Era." VISION-21 Symposium, 1993.
An essay presented at a NASA-sponsored symposium rather than a reviewed paper; it predicted the means to create superhuman intelligence within thirty years.paperVita-More, N. and Barranco, D. "Persistence of Long-Term Memory in Vitrified and Revived Caenorhabditis elegans." Rejuvenation Research, 2015.
The animal has 302 neurons and the assay is a single learned odour association, which is a long way from a mammalian memory.Rejuvenation Research is a small journal edited from within the life-extension community, and the result covers one nematode species with 302 neurons.paperWaziry, R. et al. "Effect of long-term caloric restriction on DNA methylation measures of biological aging in healthy adults from the CALERIE trial." Nature Aging, 2023.
An analysis of stored samples from a trial designed to test caloric restriction, not to validate the clocks.paperWhite, J. G., Southgate, E., Thomson, J. N. and Brenner, S. "The structure of the nervous system of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 1986.
The reconstruction was assembled by hand from sections of more than one animal, so it is a composite rather than one individual's wiring.newsWolf, G. "The Data-Driven Life." The New York Times Magazine, 2010.
Wolf is one of the two editors who named the quantified-self movement, so the piece is a participant's account of it.Wolf co-coined the term, so the piece is a participant's account of the movement rather than an outside assessment of it.paperXie, L. et al. "Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain." Science, 2013.
In mice, with much of the clearance measurement made under anaesthesia rather than natural sleep.paperZeevi, D. et al. "Personalized Nutrition by Prediction of Glycemic Responses." Cell, 2015.
The endpoint was the postprandial glucose curve itself over a short period, not weight, disease incidence, or any other health outcome.Establishes between-person variation in a physiological response, not that acting on the variation improves any clinical outcome.lawR v BM [2018] EWCA Crim 560, Court of Appeal of England and Wales.
A criminal appeal binding only in England and Wales; the operator was a body-modification practitioner, and the ruling turns on that rather than on what the customers wanted.paperAbegglen, L.M. et al. "Potential Mechanisms for Cancer Resistance in Elephants and Comparative Cellular Response to DNA Damage in Humans." JAMA, 2015.
Compares elephant and human cells in culture alongside zoo mortality records; no extra TP53 copies have been put into a person.paperAbramson, J. et al. "Accurate structure prediction of biomolecular interactions with AlphaFold 3." Nature, 2024.
Published without a code release, which drew objections about reproducibility; access for academic use followed later that year.paperAdamala, K. P. et al. "Confronting risks of mirror life." Science, 2024.
A policy argument signed by a large group of researchers, not an experimental result; no mirror organism exists to have been studied.paperAdamala, K. P. et al. "Confronting risks of mirror life." Science, 2024. Published with an accompanying book-length technical report on the feasibility and risks of mirror bacteria.
A policy argument reasoning from chirality and immunology; because no mirror organism exists, none of its claims about immune evasion has been tested.paperAdamson, G. D., Creighton, P., de Mouzon, J., Zegers-Hochschild, F., Dyer, S. and Chambers, G. M. "How many infants have been born with the help of assisted reproductive technology?" Fertility and Sterility, 2025.
A range rather than a count, because national registries differ in coverage and several large markets report incompletely.Two citations are treated as the same source when their text matches exactly, after collapsing whitespace and ignoring case. Nothing else is merged. The same paper cited in two articles with different punctuation, a shortened journal name, or one author more appears here as two rows.
That is a deliberate choice, and it has a cost in both directions: 1,050 distinct sources is an over-count, and every “cited by” figure is a floor rather than a total. The alternative — merging on author and year — would quietly fold two different 2014 papers from the same group into one row. On a page whose entire subject is whether a claim is sourced, a confident wrong merge is worse than a visible duplicate, so the duplicates stay.
The counts above are of distinct sources. The corpus contains 1,196 footnote definitions in total, which is the larger number: 146 of them repeat a citation another article already made.
Every article here cites at least one source.
Citation count is not article quality. A page about a person needs few; a page about a contested drug needs many. It does show where the writing had the most to stand on.
Each article carries its own mix at the foot of its reference list, and the editorial policy explains when a claim needs a citation at all.