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categories: ["cybernetics", "bodies"]categories: ["cybernetics", "bodies"]tags: ["neurotechnology", "implants", "sensory restoration", "paralysis", "neuromodulation", "assistive technology"]tags: ["neurotechnology", "implants", "sensory restoration", "paralysis", "neuromodulation", "assistive technology"]summary: "The engineering field that builds devices interfacing directly with the nervous system to restore lost sensory, motor, cognitive, or autonomic function."summary: "The engineering field that builds devices interfacing directly with the nervous system to restore lost sensory, motor, cognitive, or autonomic function."updated: "2026-07-27"updated: "2026-10-27"humanEvidence: "Cochlear implants, deep brain stimulators and spinal cord stimulators are in routine clinical use in large patient populations; every bidirectional cortical result rests on single-digit numbers of participants."humanEvidence: "Cochlear implants, deep brain stimulators and spinal cord stimulators are in routine clinical use in large patient populations; every bidirectional cortical result rests on single-digit numbers of participants."access: "Hearing, movement-disorder, pain and bladder devices are approved and reimbursed in high-income countries; cortical, spinal and sensory-feedback systems are available only inside research studies."access: "Hearing, movement-disorder, pain and bladder devices are approved and reimbursed in high-income countries; cortical, spinal and sensory-feedback systems are available only inside research studies."reversibility: "difficult"reversibility: "difficult"lines 189–194 → 189–198174 unchanged lines not shown
programmes at [[neuralink]], [[synchron]], and others are funding that engineering at a scaleprogrammes at [[neuralink]], [[synchron]], and others are funding that engineering at a scaleacademic laboratories never could. Miniaturized wireless nodes of the kind described underacademic laboratories never could. Miniaturized wireless nodes of the kind described under[[neural-dust]] would change the placement calculus if they can be made to work at cortical depth.[[neural-dust]] would change the placement calculus if they can be made to work at cortical depth.Further from the clinic, [[artificial-neurons|bio-interfacing artificial neurons]] aim to make thestimulating electronics themselves fire like nerve cells; printed devices of this kind havestimulated Purkinje neurons in slices of mouse cerebellum, but none has been reported implanted in aliving brain.[^hadke2026] The competing trajectory is biological. Regenerative approaches underThe competing trajectory is biological. Regenerative approaches under[[limb-regeneration]] and cell replacement therapies would remove the need for an interface[[limb-regeneration]] and cell replacement therapies would remove the need for an interfacelines 218–221 → 222–22723 unchanged lines not shown
[^ortizcatalan2020]: `paper` Ortiz-Catalan, M. et al. "Self-contained neuromusculoskeletal arm prostheses." *New England Journal of Medicine*, 2020. {A brief report on a small series of arm amputees using the system in daily life, with no control group and no randomization.}[^ortizcatalan2020]: `paper` Ortiz-Catalan, M. et al. "Self-contained neuromusculoskeletal arm prostheses." *New England Journal of Medicine*, 2020. {A brief report on a small series of arm amputees using the system in daily life, with no control group and no randomization.} [^wagner2018]: `paper` Wagner, F. B. et al. "Targeted neurotechnology restores walking in humans with spinal cord injury." *Nature*, 2018.[^wagner2018]: `paper` Wagner, F. B. et al. "Targeted neurotechnology restores walking in humans with spinal cord injury." *Nature*, 2018. [^hadke2026]: `paper` Hadke, S. S. et al. "Printed MoS2 memristive nanosheet networks for spiking neurons with multi-order complexity." *Nature Nanotechnology*, 2026. {Stimulation of Purkinje neurons in mouse cerebellar slices; no living animal or implanted device.} removed, struck through added, underlinedLine numbers count the serialised markdown of each revision, frontmatter included.
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