Loading
What changed between revision 1 and revision 4, compared over the article's markdown source with its frontmatter — so a change to status, evidence or reversibility shows up as the edit it is.
Older · revision 1
Import· initial corpus import, not an edit
Initial import of content/morphological-freedom.md — the filesystem corpus, unchanged. Not an edit.
11.3 kB
Revision 1
Revision 4
lines 5–14 → 5–144 unchanged lines not shown
status: "contested"status: "contested"horizon: "present"horizon: "present"categories: ["society", "enhancement"]categories: ["society", "enhancement"]tags: ["autonomy", "rights", "bodily integrity", "enhancement", "law", "ethics"]tags: ["autonomy", "rights", "bodily integrity", "enhancement", "law", "ethics", "cosmetic surgery"]summary: "The claimed right to modify one's own body and mind as one chooses, and the correlative right to refuse modification imposed by others."summary: "The claimed right to modify one's own body and mind as one chooses, and the correlative right to refuse modification imposed by others."updated: "2026-07-27"updated: "2026-10-30"issues: ["Habermas, Carl Elliott and the feminist critique are discussed without citations."]issues: ["Morgan 1991 and Davis 1995 are summarised from an abstract and Heyes 2007; check against the full texts.", "Criticism: the clause on principles counting only formal coercion has no direct source.", "Legal footing, the Chile and neural-data claims, and the BIID and ICD-11 paragraph lack citations."]------ ```infobox```infoboxlines 25–37 → 25–3710 unchanged lines not shown
}}`````` **Morphological freedom** is the claim that a person has a right to alter their own body and mind — chemically, surgically, genetically or electronically — and an equally strong right not to be altered by anyone else. It is the political principle most closely associated with [[transhumanism]], and the one its advocates regard as doing the real work: not a claim that enhancement is good, but a claim about who decides.**Morphological freedom** is the claim that a person has a right to alter their own body and mind, whether chemically, surgically, genetically or electronically, and an equally strong right not to be altered by anyone else. It is the political principle most closely associated with [[transhumanism]], and its advocates regard it as the one doing the real work, because it makes no claim that enhancement is good, only a claim about who decides. ## Origins## Origins [[max-more]] introduced the phrase in a 1993 essay in *Extropy*, defining it as the ability to alter bodily form at will through technologies such as surgery, genetic engineering, nanotechnology and uploading.[^more1993] The formulation was libertarian in spirit and framed as an extension of self-ownership.[[max-more]] introduced the phrase in a 1993 essay in *Extropy*, defining it as the ability to alter bodily form at will through technologies such as surgery, genetic engineering, nanotechnology and uploading.[^more1993] The formulation was libertarian in spirit and framed as an extension of self-ownership. [[anders-sandberg]] gave the idea its most-cited treatment in a paper presented at a transhumanist conference in 2001. His argument runs from the right to life and the right to one's own body: if these are meaningful, they include the right to change what one is made of, since a right to a body one may not modify is a right to a cage.[^sandberg2001] Sandberg's more consequential move was to insist that the right is symmetrical. Morphological freedom includes the right to remain unmodified, which makes it a defence against coerced enhancement as well as a licence to enhance, and which distinguishes the position from a simple pro-technology stance.[[anders-sandberg]] gave the idea its most-cited treatment in a paper presented at a transhumanist conference in 2001. His argument runs from the right to life and the right to one's own body: if these are meaningful, they include the right to change what one is made of, since a right to a body one may not modify is a right to a cage.[^sandberg2001] Sandberg's more consequential move was to insist that the right is symmetrical. Morphological freedom includes the right to remain unmodified, so it defends against coerced enhancement as well as licensing enhancement, and that symmetry distinguishes the position from a simple pro-technology stance. ```timeline```timeline[[lines 46–91 → 46–1138 unchanged lines not shown
## The argument## The argument The positive case has three steps. The first is that bodily autonomy is already recognised as near-absolute in one direction: no one may operate on a competent adult without consent, and refusal of life-saving treatment is protected in most legal systems. The second is that there is no principled asymmetry between refusing an intervention and requesting one, given the same information and the same competence. The third is that objections to particular modifications — that they are unnatural, undignified, or offensive — are objections to the modification, not reasons to relocate the decision to someone else.The positive case has three steps. The first is that bodily autonomy is already recognised as near-absolute in one direction: no one may operate on a competent adult without consent, and refusal of life-saving treatment is protected in most legal systems. The second is that there is no principled asymmetry between refusing an intervention and requesting one, given the same information and the same competence. The third is that objections to particular modifications (that they are unnatural, undignified, or offensive) are objections to the modification, and give no reason to relocate the decision to someone else. Morphological freedom is thus offered primarily as a negative right, a constraint on interference rather than an entitlement to provision. Sandberg is explicit that it does not oblige anyone to supply a modification or to pay for it, which insulates the principle from the distributional objections raised in [[access-and-inequality]] at the cost of leaving them unanswered. [[nick-bostrom]] makes a parallel argument in "In Defense of Posthuman Dignity", holding that dignity attaches to persons rather than to a particular biological configuration.[^bostrom2005]Morphological freedom is therefore offered primarily as a negative right: a constraint on interference rather than an entitlement to provision. Sandberg is explicit that it does not oblige anyone to supply a modification or to pay for it, which insulates the principle from the distributional objections raised in [[access-and-inequality]] at the cost of leaving them unanswered. [[nick-bostrom]] makes a parallel argument in "In Defense of Posthuman Dignity", holding that dignity attaches to persons rather than to a particular biological configuration.[^bostrom2005] The principle is invoked across a wider range of cases than its transhumanist origins suggest. Reproductive autonomy, gender-affirming care, cosmetic surgery, tattooing, assisted dying, [[uterus-transplantation|elective transplantation to enable a pregnancy]] and the use of unapproved drugs by terminally ill patients all involve a claim that the body in question belongs to the person in it.The principle is invoked across a wider range of cases than its transhumanist origins suggest. Reproductive autonomy, gender-affirming care, cosmetic surgery, tattooing, assisted dying, [[uterus-transplantation|elective transplantation to enable a pregnancy]] and the use of unapproved drugs by terminally ill patients all involve a claim that the body in question belongs to the person in it. ## Legal footing## Legal footing No jurisdiction recognises morphological freedom by name. Several protect its components. The European Convention on Human Rights has been read to protect personal autonomy and physical and psychological integrity under the right to private life; the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union states a right to the integrity of the person, framed as protection against intervention rather than as a licence for it. Most of the doctrine, in other words, protects the refusal half of the right and says little about the request half.No jurisdiction recognises morphological freedom by name. Several protect its components. The European Convention on Human Rights has been read to protect personal autonomy and physical and psychological integrity under the right to private life; the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union states a right to the integrity of the person, framed as protection against intervention rather than as a licence for it. Most of the doctrine thus protects the refusal half of the right and says little about the request half. Where the request half has been tested, it has generally lost. In *R v BM* the Court of Appeal of England and Wales held that consent is no defence to charges arising from tongue-splitting and the removal of an ear and a nipple by a body-modification practitioner, following the earlier reasoning in *R v Brown* on consensual injury.[^rvbm2018] The court's ground was that only recognised medical procedures fall within the exception to the rule that one cannot consent to serious harm, which makes the professional status of the operator, rather than the wishes of the person modified, the operative fact.Where the request half has been tested, it has generally lost. In *R v BM* the Court of Appeal of England and Wales held that consent is no defence to charges arising from tongue-splitting and the removal of an ear and a nipple by a body-modification practitioner, following the earlier reasoning in *R v Brown* on consensual injury.[^rvbm2018] The court reasoned that only recognised medical procedures fall within the exception to the rule that one cannot consent to serious harm. On that reasoning the operative fact is the professional status of the operator rather than the wishes of the person modified. > [!key] The asymmetry in existing law> [!key] The asymmetry in existing law> Legal systems protect the right to refuse almost absolutely and the right to request only where a licensed professional is willing to act within recognised practice. Morphological freedom, as its proponents state it, would require collapsing that asymmetry — which is precisely what the cases have declined to do.> Legal systems protect the right to refuse almost absolutely and the right to request only where a licensed professional is willing to act within recognised practice. Morphological freedom, as its proponents state it, would require collapsing that asymmetry, and the cases have declined to do so. ## Limits others propose## Limits others propose Four limits are commonly urged, and advocates of the principle accept some of them.Four limits are commonly proposed, and advocates of the principle accept some of them. **Harm to others.** Uncontroversial in principle and difficult in application, since [[germline-editing|heritable modification]] and self-spreading interventions affect people who never consented. Sandberg accepts this limit explicitly.**Harm to others.** This limit is uncontroversial in principle and difficult in application, since [[germline-editing|heritable modification]] and self-spreading interventions affect people who never consented. Sandberg accepts this limit explicitly. **Consent and capacity.** Modification of children, of the incapacitated, and of future people is outside the principle by construction, which is why [[designer-babies]] and [[procreative-beneficence]] cannot be settled by appeal to morphological freedom. Habermas's argument that a designed person stands in an asymmetric relation to their designer is a claim about exactly this gap.**Consent and capacity.** Modification of children, of the incapacitated, and of future people is outside the principle by construction, which is why [[designer-babies]] and [[procreative-beneficence]] cannot be settled by appeal to morphological freedom. Habermas's argument that a designed person stands in an asymmetric relation to their designer is a claim about exactly this gap.[^habermas2003] **Positional externalities.** Where a modification confers advantage only relative to others, individual choice aggregates into collective coercion. This is the structure analysed in [[enhancement-arms-race]] and in [[enhancement-in-sport]], and it is the strongest reason a principle of non-interference is not sufficient on its own.**Positional externalities.** Where a modification confers advantage only relative to others, individual choice aggregates into collective coercion. This is the structure analysed in [[enhancement-arms-race]] and in [[enhancement-in-sport]], and it is the strongest reason a principle of non-interference cannot stand on its own. **Irreversibility.** Some proposals distinguish reversible from irreversible modification and apply a higher standard to the latter, on the grounds that a person's future self also has a claim.**Irreversibility.** Some proposals distinguish reversible from irreversible modification and apply a higher standard to the latter, on the grounds that a person's future self also has a claim. ## Criticism## Criticism The autonomy premise itself is the main target. Feminist analyses of cosmetic surgery have argued for decades that choices made under strong social pressure are not straightforwardly free, and that a principle which counts only formal coercion will license outcomes it purports to protect people from. Carl Elliott's work on enhancement in American medicine makes a related point about how quickly an optional intervention becomes a norm.The autonomy premise itself is the main target. Feminist analyses of cosmetic surgery have argued for decades that choices made under strong social pressure are not straightforwardly free,[^morgan1991][^heyes2007] and that a principle counting only formal coercion will license the outcomes it claims to protect people from. Carl Elliott's work on enhancement in American medicine makes a related point about how individual choices reinforce the social norms that prompted them.[^caplan2004] A second criticism holds that the principle is empty without a theory of what is worth wanting. Bioconservative writers argue that morphological freedom describes a procedure while remaining silent on whether any given transformation is good for the person, and that a framework with nothing to say about that has abandoned the question that matters; see [[bioconservatism]] and [[leon-kass]].A second criticism holds that the principle is empty without a theory of what is worth wanting. Bioconservative writers argue that morphological freedom describes a procedure while remaining silent on whether any given transformation is good for the person, and that a framework with nothing to say on that point has abandoned the question that matters (see [[bioconservatism]] and [[leon-kass]]). > [!debate] An objection consent cannot answer> The sharpest bioconservative statement denies the relevance of the autonomy argument instead of> contesting it. Michael Sandel argues that the vocabulary of autonomy and rights is "ill equipped" for> enhancement precisely because it "cannot explain our moral hesitation about people who seek> genetic remedies or enhancements for themselves"; his objection is to the "drive to mastery" a> choice expresses, not to who makes it.[^sandel2004] Against Sandberg's claim that the decision> belongs to the person in the body, Sandel's reply is that the decision's location was never the> question. The two disagree about whether consent exhausts the ethics, and no refinement of> consent procedures can address that. A third comes from disability studies. Body integrity dysphoria, recognised in the ICD-11, describes people who seek amputation or paralysis of healthy limbs. Advocates of morphological freedom face a dilemma: refusing these requests requires appeal to a norm of function that the principle was designed to reject, while granting them requires accepting elective disability as a legitimate exercise of the same right. The debate in [[disability-rights-and-enhancement]] approaches the same territory from the other direction, and neither side has produced a criterion that handles both cases without special pleading.A third comes from disability studies. Body integrity dysphoria, recognised in the ICD-11, describes people who seek amputation or paralysis of healthy limbs. Advocates of morphological freedom face a dilemma: refusing these requests requires appeal to a norm of function that the principle was designed to reject, while granting them requires accepting elective disability as a legitimate exercise of the same right. The debate in [[disability-rights-and-enhancement]] approaches the same territory from the other direction, and neither side has produced a criterion that handles both cases without special pleading. ## Cosmetic surgery as a test case Cosmetic surgery is elective body modification already practised at scale. The International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (ISAPS) estimated that plastic surgeons worldwide performed about 17.9 million surgical and 17.3 million non-surgical aesthetic procedures in 2025, with eyelid surgery the most common operation.[^isaps2026] The American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS) put US cosmetic operations in 2025 at 1.52 million.[^asps2026] Both are statistical extrapolations rather than counts, and ISAPS warns that changes to its procedure list limit comparison between years.[^isaps2026] The principle's founders said little about appearance. More's 1993 essay noted that cosmetic surgery and implants were "becoming increasingly common" and expected more radical change once nanomedicine "superseded crude surgical alteration".[^more1993] Sandberg classed plastic surgery with tattoos and piercing as old practices aimed mainly at appearance rather than function, and argued that a popular modification strengthens the self-definition of those who refuse it.[^sandberg2001] Habermas, whose objection is to the genetic design of children, allowed that his argument against "alien determination" "becomes irrelevant" when a person chooses a genetic intervention for herself, a case that would "not really be different from cases of cosmetic surgery".[^habermas2003] Critics dispute that such choices are free. Kathryn Pauly Morgan analysed elective cosmetic surgery aimed at women as the normalisation of "technologized" bodies, finding "paradoxes of choice" in women's decisions to "elect" it.[^morgan1991] Kathy Davis's interview study of Dutch women seeking state-funded surgery, published in 1995, cast them instead as competent actors, most wanting to look ordinary rather than beautiful; Susan Bordo replied that this language of agency mirrors consumerist talk of taking control.[^heyes2007] Eugenia Kaw's interviews with Asian American women who had eyelid and nose surgery concluded that medicine lent "the authority of scientific rationality" to racial and gender stereotypes,[^kaw1993] while Ruth Holliday and Joanna Elfving-Hwang argued that, for South Korea, a focus on Western dominance misses national identity discourses and traditional physiognomy.[^holliday2012] One online survey of 252 adults linked investment in social media with greater consideration of cosmetic surgery, a correlation that cannot show cause.[^chen2019] Clinical findings bear on the principle's deference to a person's own judgement. Systematic reviews put body dysmorphic disorder at 13.2%[^veale2016] to 19.2%[^salari2022] of cosmetic surgery patients, against about 1.9% of adults in the community,[^veale2016] and in a study of 200 people with the disorder, dermatological and surgical treatment rarely improved it.[^crerand2005] Treatment abroad adds risk: the CDC counted 93 US citizens who died after cosmetic surgery in the Dominican Republic in 2009-2022,[^cdc2024] and in October 2026 linked mycobacterial infections in at least five US residents to facelifts by one surgeon in Mexico, noting that such infections are not nationally notifiable.[^cdc2026] Regulation has drawn its lines at age, and minors are outside the principle by construction. Since October 2021 it has been an offence in England to give botulinum toxin or a cosmetic filler injection to anyone under 18, with defences for doctors and for regulated health professionals acting on a doctor's directions.[^btcf2021] Norway has since July 2022 barred cosmetic procedures without medical or dental justification on under-18s, exempting corrective treatment of malformation, injury or disease,[^hpl2022] and Germany bans public advertising of medically unnecessary cosmetic surgery aimed mainly at children and adolescents.[^hwg] [[face-and-hand-transplantation|Face transplantation]], which treats severe facial disfigurement, lies on the reconstructive side of that line.[^shpigel2022] Outside medicine, the implant subculture described in [[biohacking]] and the practitioner in *R v BM* press on the same boundary from the other side. ## Current relevance## Current relevance The most active front has moved from the body to the brain. Proposals for [[neurorights]] and for [[mental-privacy]] protection are morphological freedom applied to neural tissue and neural data, and they have made faster legal progress than the bodily version ever did: Chile's constitutional amendment, subsequent state neural-data statutes in the United States, and a UNESCO recommendation on neurotechnology ethics all address mental integrity directly.The most active front has moved from the body to the brain. Proposals for [[neurorights]] and for [[mental-privacy]] protection apply morphological freedom to neural tissue and neural data, and they have made faster legal progress than the bodily version ever did. Chile's constitutional amendment, subsequent state neural-data statutes in the United States, and a UNESCO recommendation on neurotechnology ethics all address mental integrity directly. Whether that progress vindicates the principle is unclear. Every one of those instruments protects the right not to be modified or read, and none creates a right to modify. The half of morphological freedom that transhumanists care about most remains, thirty years after it was named, without legal recognition anywhere.Whether that progress vindicates the principle is unclear. Every one of those instruments protects the right not to be modified or read, and none creates a right to modify. Thirty years after the term was coined, the half of morphological freedom that transhumanists care about most still has no legal recognition anywhere. ## See also## See also lines 104–107 → 126–14812 unchanged lines not shown
[^sandberg2001]: `book` Sandberg, A. "Morphological Freedom — Why We Not Just Want It, but Need It." Presented at TransVision, 2001; reprinted in *The Transhumanist Reader*, Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.[^sandberg2001]: `book` Sandberg, A. "Morphological Freedom — Why We Not Just Want It, but Need It." Presented at TransVision, 2001; reprinted in *The Transhumanist Reader*, Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.[^bostrom2005]: `paper` Bostrom, N. "In Defense of Posthuman Dignity." *Bioethics*, 2005.[^bostrom2005]: `paper` Bostrom, N. "In Defense of Posthuman Dignity." *Bioethics*, 2005.[^rvbm2018]: `law` *R v BM* [2018] EWCA Crim 560, Court of Appeal of England and Wales. {A criminal appeal binding only in England and Wales; the operator was a body-modification practitioner, and the ruling turns on that rather than on what the customers wanted.}[^rvbm2018]: `law` *R v BM* [2018] EWCA Crim 560, Court of Appeal of England and Wales. {A criminal appeal binding only in England and Wales; the operator was a body-modification practitioner, and the ruling turns on that rather than on what the customers wanted.}[^sandel2004]: `news` Sandel, M. J. "The Case Against Perfection." *The Atlantic Monthly*, April 2004. {A magazine essay, expanded into a 2007 book of the same name; its worked examples are genetic enhancement, sport and hyperparenting rather than body modification generally.}[^habermas2003]: `book` Habermas, J. *The Future of Human Nature*. Polity, 2003, pp. 63-64, 81 and 86. {Written against the genetic design of children; the comparison with cosmetic surgery comes in the postscript, in reply to a variation proposed by Ronald Dworkin.}[^morgan1991]: `paper` Morgan, K. P. "Women and the Knife: Cosmetic Surgery and the Colonization of Women's Bodies." *Hypatia* 6(3), 1991, pp. 25-53. doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.1991.tb00254.x[^heyes2007]: `paper` Heyes, C. J. "Normalisation and the Psychic Life of Cosmetic Surgery." *Australian Feminist Studies* 22(52), 2007, pp. 55-71. doi:10.1080/08164640601145061 {Cited for its account of Davis's interview study and Bordo's reply; Heyes is herself a party, arguing that the wish to look ordinary is also a product of normalisation.}[^caplan2004]: `paper` Caplan, A. and Elliott, C. "Is It Ethical to Use Enhancement Technologies to Make Us Better than Well?" *PLoS Medicine* 1(3), 2004, e52. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0010052 {A debate: Elliott's case rests mainly on drug marketing, and Caplan replies that it indicts the pharmaceutical industry rather than enhancement itself.}[^isaps2026]: `report` International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. *ISAPS International Survey on Aesthetic/Cosmetic Procedures Performed in 2025*. Compiled by Industry Insights, Inc., 2026. https://www.isaps.org/media/ua4leneo/isaps-global-survey_2025.pdf {Totals are projected from 2,900 plastic surgeons' responses; procedures by dermatologists, other doctors and non-physician injectors are outside its scope.}[^asps2026]: `report` American Society of Plastic Surgeons. *2025 Plastic Surgery Statistics Report*. September 2026. https://www.plasticsurgery.org/documents/news/statistics/2025/plastic-surgery-statistics-report-2025.pdf {National estimates extrapolated from member, insurer and claims data covering more than 3,000 board-certified plastic surgeons; injectables are reported only as shares.}[^kaw1993]: `paper` Kaw, E. "Medicalization of Racial Features: Asian American Women and Cosmetic Surgery." *Medical Anthropology Quarterly* 7(1), 1993, pp. 74-89. doi:10.1525/maq.1993.7.1.02a00050 {An ethnography built on interviews with surgeons and patients in the San Francisco Bay Area, not a survey of patients generally.}[^holliday2012]: `paper` Holliday, R. and Elfving-Hwang, J. "Gender, Globalization and Aesthetic Surgery in South Korea." *Body & Society* 18(2), 2012, pp. 58-81. doi:10.1177/1357034X12440828[^chen2019]: `paper` Chen, J. et al. "Association Between the Use of Social Media and Photograph Editing Applications, Self-esteem, and Cosmetic Surgery Acceptance." *JAMA Facial Plastic Surgery* 21(5), 2019, pp. 361-367. doi:10.1001/jamafacial.2019.0328 {A one-off online survey of mostly young adults, 73% of them women; it measured attitudes toward surgery, not procedures performed.}[^veale2016]: `paper` Veale, D., Gledhill, L. J., Christodoulou, P. and Hodsoll, J. "Body dysmorphic disorder in different settings: A systematic review and estimated weighted prevalence." *Body Image* 18, 2016, pp. 168-186. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.07.003 {The same review puts the figure at 20.1% among rhinoplasty patients, the highest of the settings it covers.}[^salari2022]: `paper` Salari, N. et al. "Body dysmorphic disorder in individuals requesting cosmetic surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis." *Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery* 75(7), 2022, pp. 2325-2336. doi:10.1016/j.bjps.2022.04.098 {Pools 48 studies and 14,913 people; the estimate varied significantly with study sample size.}[^crerand2005]: `paper` Crerand, C. E., Phillips, K. A., Menard, W. and Fay, C. "Nonpsychiatric medical treatment of body dysmorphic disorder." *Psychosomatics* 46(6), 2005, pp. 549-555. doi:10.1176/appi.psy.46.6.549[^cdc2024]: `report` Hudson, M. et al. "Deaths of U.S. Citizens Undergoing Cosmetic Surgery - Dominican Republic, 2009-2022." *MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report* 73(3), 2024, pp. 62-65. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm7303a3[^cdc2026]: `report` Swamy, N. et al. "Notes from the Field: Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Infections After Cosmetic Surgery Procedures in Mexico - United States, April-September 2025." *MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report* 75(41), 2026, pp. 622-624. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm7541a2 {Cases were found largely through a patients' social media group and the investigation was still open, so five is a minimum.}[^btcf2021]: `law` *Botulinum Toxin and Cosmetic Fillers (Children) Act 2021* (c. 19), ss. 1-2; in force 1 October 2021 under S.I. 2021/1004. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2021/19 {Applies in England; defences cover doctors, nurses, dentists and pharmacists acting on a doctor's directions, and a reasonable belief that the client was 18 or over.}[^hpl2022]: `law` Lov om helsepersonell m.v. (helsepersonelloven), § 4 b, added by lov 1. april 2022 nr. 18, in force 1 July 2022. https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/1999-07-02-64 {The age limit does not apply to low-risk treatments, such as skin care, given by people who are not health personnel.}[^hwg]: `law` Gesetz über die Werbung auf dem Gebiete des Heilwesens (Heilmittelwerbegesetz), § 11(1), third sentence, read with § 1(1) no. 2(c). https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/heilmwerbg/__11.html {Restricts advertising to the public; it sets no age limit for the operations themselves.}[^shpigel2022]: `paper` Shpigel, M. et al. "Special Considerations in Face Transplantation: A Systematic Review." *Journal of Craniofacial Surgery* 33(5), 2022, pp. 1352-1357. doi:10.1097/SCS.0000000000008484 removed, struck through added, underlinedLine numbers count the serialised markdown of each revision, frontmatter included.
89 lines are the same in both revisions, and 34 of them are not shown. Neither revision here is necessarily the current article — read Morphological freedom for the text this wiki stands behind today.