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categories: ["reproduction", "genetics"]categories: ["reproduction", "genetics"]tags: ["cloning", "reproduction", "stem cells", "bioethics", "regulation", "identity"]tags: ["cloning", "reproduction", "stem cells", "bioethics", "regulation", "identity"]summary: "Producing a human genetically identical to an existing person by somatic cell nuclear transfer, demonstrated to the blastocyst stage and never taken to a pregnancy."summary: "Producing a human genetically identical to an existing person by somatic cell nuclear transfer, demonstrated to the blastocyst stage and never taken to a pregnancy."updated: "2026-07-27"updated: "2026-10-29"humanEvidence: "Nuclear transfer has produced human blastocysts and embryonic stem cell lines in culture; no human pregnancy or birth from a cloned embryo has been documented, and all live-birth data are from other mammals."humanEvidence: "Nuclear transfer has produced human blastocysts and embryonic stem cell lines in culture; no human pregnancy or birth from a cloned embryo has been documented, and all live-birth data are from other mammals."access: "Not obtainable: reproductive cloning is prohibited by statute in most countries with a biotechnology sector and no clinic offers it, while nuclear transfer for research is done in a handful of laboratories."access: "Not obtainable: reproductive cloning is prohibited by statute in most countries with a biotechnology sector and no clinic offers it, while nuclear transfer for research is done in a handful of laboratories."reversibility: "irreversible"reversibility: "irreversible"lines 29–53 → 29–5314 unchanged lines not shown
}}`````` **Human cloning** is the production of a person genetically identical to an existing individual, almost always understood to mean somatic cell nuclear transfer into an egg. Nuclear transfer has produced live offspring in more than twenty mammalian species, including primates, and has produced human embryos and stem cell lines. No human pregnancy from it has been reported anywhere, and the reasons are as much about a collapse in motivation as about law or technique.**Human cloning** is the production of a person genetically identical to an existing individual, almost always understood to mean somatic cell nuclear transfer into an egg. Nuclear transfer has produced live offspring in more than twenty mammalian species, including primates, and has produced human embryos and stem cell lines. No human pregnancy from it has been reported anywhere. Law and technique explain part of that; a collapse in motivation explains as much. ## Two things called cloning## Two things called cloning *Reproductive cloning* aims at a live birth. *Therapeutic cloning*, more precisely called nuclear transfer for stem cell derivation, aims only at a blastocyst from which embryonic stem cells genetically matched to a patient can be taken. The two share every step up to embryo transfer and diverge completely after it.*Reproductive cloning* aims at a live birth. *Therapeutic cloning*, more precisely called nuclear transfer for stem cell derivation, aims only at a blastocyst from which embryonic stem cells genetically matched to a patient can be taken. The two share every step up to embryo transfer and part completely after it. The distinction mattered enormously between about 1998 and 2007, when patient-matched stem cells were the main scientific argument for permitting nuclear transfer at all. It stopped mattering when [[induced-pluripotent-stem-cells]] arrived. Reprogramming a skin cell with the [[yamanaka-factors]] produces patient-matched pluripotent cells without an egg, without an embryo, and without the ethical objection that dominated a decade of legislation. Therapeutic cloning was rendered largely obsolete within a few years of being legalised in the places that legalised it.Between about 1998 and 2007 the distinction mattered enormously, because patient-matched stem cells were the main scientific argument for permitting nuclear transfer at all. It stopped mattering when [[induced-pluripotent-stem-cells]] arrived. Reprogramming a skin cell with the [[yamanaka-factors]] produces patient-matched pluripotent cells without an egg, without an embryo, and without the ethical objection that dominated a decade of legislation. Within a few years of being legalised in the places that legalised it, therapeutic cloning was largely obsolete. ## How nuclear transfer works## How nuclear transfer works An unfertilised egg is held with a pipette and its own chromosomes removed. A somatic cell such as a fibroblast, a cumulus cell, or a lymphocyte is placed under the zona pellucida and fused with the egg by an electrical pulse, or its nucleus is injected directly. The reconstructed cell is activated chemically or electrically to mimic fertilisation, cultured to the blastocyst stage, and either transferred to a surrogate or used to derive stem cells.An unfertilised egg is held with a pipette and its own chromosomes are removed. A somatic cell such as a fibroblast, a cumulus cell, or a lymphocyte is placed under the zona pellucida and fused with the egg by an electrical pulse, or its nucleus is injected directly. The reconstructed cell is activated chemically or electrically to mimic fertilisation, cultured to the blastocyst stage, and either transferred to a surrogate or used to derive stem cells. The hard part is neither the micromanipulation nor the activation. It is that the egg cytoplasm must, within hours, erase the epigenetic configuration of a differentiated cell and impose that of a totipotent zygote. This is the same reprogramming that underlies [[epigenetic-reprogramming]] more generally, but performed by unidentified maternal factors on a schedule nobody controls. It fails most of the time. Embryos that survive frequently carry aberrant methylation at imprinted loci and abnormal placental development, producing the pattern known in livestock as large offspring syndrome.The micromanipulation and the activation are the easy steps. The difficulty is that the egg cytoplasm must, within hours, erase the epigenetic configuration of a differentiated cell and impose that of a totipotent zygote. This is the same reprogramming that underlies [[epigenetic-reprogramming]] more generally, carried out here by unidentified maternal factors on a schedule nobody controls, and it fails most of the time. Embryos that survive frequently carry aberrant methylation at imprinted loci and abnormal placental development, the pattern known in livestock as large offspring syndrome. ```timeline```timeline[[ { "year": "1996", "title": "Dolly", "text": "Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell's team at the Roslin Institute produces a lamb from an adult mammary cell nucleus. Hundreds of reconstructed embryos yield a single live birth." }, { "year": "1996", "title": "Dolly", "text": "Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell's team at the Roslin Institute produces a lamb from an adult mammary cell nucleus. Hundreds of reconstructed embryos yield a single live birth." }, { "year": "1998–2005", "title": "Species accumulate", "text": "Mice, cattle, pigs, cats, and in 2005 the first dog are cloned. Commercial pet and livestock cloning follows." }, { "year": "1998-2005", "title": "Species accumulate", "text": "Mice, cattle, pigs, cats, and in 2005 the first dog are cloned. Commercial pet and livestock cloning follows." }, { "year": "2004–2006", "title": "The Hwang fraud", "text": "Claims of human stem cell lines derived by nuclear transfer are published and then retracted as fabricated; the cloned dog from the same laboratory proves genuine." }, { "year": "2004-2006", "title": "The Hwang fraud", "text": "Claims of human stem cell lines derived by nuclear transfer are published and then retracted as fabricated; the cloned dog from the same laboratory proves genuine." }, { "year": "2013", "title": "Human stem cell lines", "text": "Shoukhrat Mitalipov's group derives verified human embryonic stem cell lines by nuclear transfer, using caffeine to stabilise the spindle." }, { "year": "2013", "title": "Human stem cell lines", "text": "Shoukhrat Mitalipov's group derives verified human embryonic stem cell lines by nuclear transfer, using caffeine to stabilise the spindle." }, { "year": "2018", "title": "Primates", "text": "A Shanghai team produces two long-tailed macaques from fetal fibroblasts, aided by a histone demethylase and a deacetylase inhibitor to relieve epigenetic barriers." }, { "year": "2018", "title": "Primates", "text": "A Shanghai team produces two long-tailed macaques from fetal fibroblasts, aided by a histone demethylase and a deacetylase inhibitor to relieve epigenetic barriers." }, { "year": "2020s", "title": "Conservation cloning", "text": "A black-footed ferret and a Przewalski's horse are cloned from decades-old frozen cell lines to restore lost genetic diversity." } { "year": "2020s", "title": "Conservation cloning", "text": "A black-footed ferret and a Przewalski's horse are cloned from decades-old frozen cell lines to restore lost genetic diversity." }lines 56–93 → 56–932 unchanged lines not shown
## Dolly and what she showed## Dolly and what she showed The 1997 report of Dolly's birth overturned a settled assumption that differentiation was irreversible in mammals.[^wilmut1997] The efficiency was poor: a few hundred reconstructed embryos produced one lamb. That ratio has improved but not transformed in the decades since.The 1997 report of Dolly's birth overturned a settled assumption that differentiation was irreversible in mammals.[^wilmut1997] The efficiency was poor: a few hundred reconstructed embryos produced one lamb. In the decades since, that ratio has improved without being transformed. Dolly was euthanised at six after developing a lung tumour caused by a retrovirus endemic in housed sheep, and her arthritis prompted speculation that clones age prematurely. Her telomeres were shorter than expected for her age. A later study of cloned sheep derived from the same cell line found them ageing normally into old age, which weakened the premature-ageing claim without settling the underlying question of how nuclear transfer interacts with the mechanisms described in [[telomeres-and-telomerase]].[^sinclair2016]Dolly was euthanised at six after developing a lung tumour caused by a retrovirus endemic in housed sheep, and her arthritis prompted speculation that clones age prematurely. Her telomeres were shorter than expected for her age. A later study of cloned sheep derived from the same cell line found them ageing normally into old age.[^sinclair2016] That weakened the premature-ageing claim, but it did not settle how nuclear transfer interacts with the mechanisms described in [[telomeres-and-telomerase]]. ## Primates, and why humans are different## Primates, and why humans are different Primate cloning resisted for two decades. Part of the reason was technical: in primate eggs, spindle-associated proteins are removed along with the chromosomes during enucleation, disabling the reconstructed cell. Modified enucleation methods and chemical stabilisation of the spindle addressed this, and in 2013 human blastocysts and stem cell lines were produced.[^tachibana2013]Primates resisted cloning for two decades. Part of the reason was technical: in primate eggs, spindle-associated proteins are removed along with the chromosomes during enucleation, disabling the reconstructed cell. Modified enucleation methods and chemical stabilisation of the spindle addressed this, and in 2013 human blastocysts and stem cell lines were produced.[^tachibana2013] Live primate births required more. The 2018 macaque work added treatments that relieve epigenetic barriers, including messenger RNA for a histone demethylase and an inhibitor of histone deacetylases.[^liu2018] Even then, only embryos made from fetal fibroblasts produced surviving offspring; attempts using adult cells failed. Two live macaques resulted from a large number of transferred embryos and surrogate pregnancies.Live primate births required more. The 2018 macaque work added treatments that relieve epigenetic barriers, including messenger RNA for a histone demethylase and an inhibitor of histone deacetylases.[^liu2018] Even then, only embryos made from fetal fibroblasts produced surviving offspring; attempts using adult cells failed. Two live macaques resulted from a large number of transferred embryos and surrogate pregnancies. That last fact is the honest state of the technology. Cloning a human from an adult cell would mean many surrogate pregnancies with a high rate of loss, malformation, and neonatal death, in a species where each of those events involves a person who has consented to something and a child who has not. No reputable body regards this as an acceptable risk profile, and the argument does not turn on symbolism.Those numbers describe where the technology actually stands. Cloning a human from an adult cell would mean many surrogate pregnancies with a high rate of loss, malformation, and neonatal death, in a species where each of those events involves a person who has consented to something and a child who has not. No reputable body regards this as an acceptable risk profile, and that judgement rests on the risks themselves, not on symbolism. > [!caution] Claims and their status> [!caution] Claims and their status> Several groups have announced human cloning attempts or successes since 2001, including a religious organisation that claimed a birth in 2002. None provided verifiable evidence. As of 2026 no cloned human birth has been documented.> Several groups have announced human cloning attempts or successes since 2001, including a religious organisation that claimed a birth in 2002. None provided verifiable evidence. As of 2026 no cloned human birth has been documented. ## A clone is not a copy## A clone is not a copy Public discussion has consistently overstated the relationship. A clone is a delayed monozygotic twin, and one raised in a different uterus, a different family, and a different decade. Identical twins share a prenatal environment and a birth cohort and are therefore more alike than a clone and its progenitor would be.Public discussion has consistently overstated the relationship. A clone is a delayed monozygotic twin, gestated in a different uterus and raised in a different family and a different decade. Identical twins share a prenatal environment and a birth cohort, so they are more alike than a clone and its progenitor would be. Nor is the genome identical in the strict sense. Mitochondrial DNA comes from the egg donor rather than the nuclear donor, so a clone made with a stranger's egg has a different mitochondrial genotype — the same asymmetry that makes [[mitochondrial-replacement-therapy]] a heritable modification. Somatic mutations accumulated in the donor cell are carried forward. Epigenetic marks, X-inactivation patterns, immune receptor repertoires and neural wiring all differ.Nor is the genome identical in the strict sense. Mitochondrial DNA comes from the egg donor rather than the nuclear donor, so a clone made with a stranger's egg has a different mitochondrial genotype. The same asymmetry makes [[mitochondrial-replacement-therapy]] a heritable modification. Somatic mutations accumulated in the donor cell are carried forward. Epigenetic marks, X-inactivation patterns, immune receptor repertoires and neural wiring all differ. The identity question this raises is philosophically thinner than it looks. Nothing in [[personal-identity-and-continuity]] suggests that genetic identity constitutes personal identity; a clone is a distinct person with a distinct psychological history from the first moment. The real ethical concerns are about the expectations placed on a child created to resemble someone, which is a familiar problem in an unfamiliar form.The identity question this raises is philosophically thinner than it looks. Nothing in [[personal-identity-and-continuity]] suggests that genetic identity constitutes personal identity, and a clone is a distinct person with a distinct psychological history from the first moment. The substantive ethical concerns are about the expectations placed on a child created to resemble someone. Parents already place such expectations on children; cloning would give the problem a new form. ## Law and ethics## Law and ethics Reproductive human cloning is prohibited by statute in most countries with an established biotechnology sector. The Council of Europe adopted a protocol banning it in 1998; a United Nations declaration in 2005 called on states to prohibit cloning practices "incompatible with human dignity", passing by a divided vote and carrying no binding force. The United States has no federal statute; the Food and Drug Administration asserts jurisdiction over the procedure and a number of states ban it outright, an arrangement that resembles the gap analysed in [[governance-of-genome-editing]].Reproductive human cloning is prohibited by statute in most countries with an established biotechnology sector. The Council of Europe adopted a protocol banning it in 1998; a United Nations declaration in 2005 called on states to prohibit cloning practices "incompatible with human dignity", passing by a divided vote and carrying no binding force. The United States has no federal statute. The Food and Drug Administration asserts jurisdiction over the procedure and a number of states ban it outright, an arrangement that resembles the gap analysed in [[governance-of-genome-editing]]. The ethical literature on cloning is unusually well developed because it preceded the technology's plausibility. [[leon-kass|Leon Kass]]'s argument that widespread repugnance can carry moral information was made about cloning first, and remains the most cited statement of the position surveyed in [[bioconservatism]].[^kass1997] Against it, critics argued that repugnance had also attended IVF and organ transplantation, and that the specific harms alleged, namely confused lineage, instrumentalisation, and loss of genetic uniqueness, either did not follow from the technique or already occurred in accepted practices.The ethical literature on cloning is unusually well developed because it was written before the technology was plausible. [[leon-kass|Leon Kass]]'s argument that widespread repugnance can carry moral information was made about cloning first, and remains the most cited statement of the position surveyed in [[bioconservatism]].[^kass1997] Against it, critics argued that repugnance had also attended IVF and organ transplantation, and that the specific harms alleged, namely confused lineage, instrumentalisation, and loss of genetic uniqueness, either did not follow from the technique or already occurred in accepted practices. What ultimately blocked reproductive cloning was neither argument nor law but the absence of a use case. For infertility, [[embryo-selection]] and donor gametes work better; for genetic disease, [[germline-editing]] and selection address the cause; for replacing a dead child, the technique does not do what the bereaved parent wants. The one domain where nuclear transfer remains actively useful is animal work, including livestock, the conservation cloning of species with collapsed genetic diversity, and the edited pigs used in [[xenotransplantation]] and by companies pursuing [[de-extinction]].In the end, what blocked reproductive cloning was the absence of a use case rather than argument or law. For infertility, [[embryo-selection]] and donor gametes work better. For genetic disease, [[germline-editing]] and selection address the cause. For replacing a dead child, the technique does not do what the bereaved parent wants. Nuclear transfer remains actively useful only in animal work, including livestock, the conservation cloning of species with collapsed genetic diversity, and the edited pigs used in [[xenotransplantation]] and by companies pursuing [[de-extinction]]. If a human is ever cloned, the most likely route is not a fertility clinic but a well-funded private effort in a permissive jurisdiction, and the most likely reason will be that someone wanted it done. Whether the efficiency and epigenetic problems can be reduced to a level that would make the attempt survivable is an empirical question that nobody has an ethical way to answer.If a human is ever cloned, the most likely route is a well-funded private effort in a permissive jurisdiction rather than a fertility clinic, and the most likely reason will be that someone wanted it done. Whether the efficiency and epigenetic problems can be reduced to a level that would make the attempt survivable is an empirical question that nobody has an ethical way to answer. ## See also## See also removed, struck through added, underlinedLine numbers count the serialised markdown of each revision, frontmatter included.
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