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categories: ["society", "enhancement"]categories: ["society", "enhancement"]tags: ["disability", "bioethics", "neurodiversity", "selection", "accessibility", "deafness"]tags: ["disability", "bioethics", "neurodiversity", "selection", "accessibility", "deafness"]summary: "The disability-rights critique of selection and enhancement, centred on the expressivist objection, the social model, and the difference between curing and accommodating."summary: "The disability-rights critique of selection and enhancement, centred on the expressivist objection, the social model, and the difference between curing and accommodating."updated: "2026-07-27"updated: "2026-10-29"issues: ["The paused 2021 UK autism genetics study is described without a source.", "The claim about prosthetic-hand abandonment rates carries no citation."]issues: ["The paused 2021 UK autism genetics study is described without a source.", "The claim about prosthetic-hand abandonment rates carries no citation."]------ lines 17–23 → 17–233 unchanged lines not shown
"rows": [ "rows": [ { "label": "Central objection", "value": "Expressivist" }, { "label": "Central objection", "value": "Expressivist" }, { "label": "Framing concept", "value": "Social model of disability" }, { "label": "Framing concept", "value": "Social model of disability" }, { "label": "Named", "value": "United Kingdom, 1976–1983" }, { "label": "Named", "value": "United Kingdom, 1976-1983" }, { "label": "Key figure", "value": "Adrienne Asch" }, { "label": "Key figure", "value": "Adrienne Asch" }, { "label": "Treaty basis", "value": "UN CRPD, 2006" }, { "label": "Treaty basis", "value": "UN CRPD, 2006" }, { "label": "Point of conflict", "value": "Prenatal and embryo selection" } { "label": "Point of conflict", "value": "Prenatal and embryo selection" }lines 25–56 → 25–561 unchanged line not shown
}}`````` **Disability rights and enhancement** covers the arguments made by disability scholars and activists against biomedical selection and enhancement, and the responses to them. The dispute is not between people who want disabled people to suffer and people who do not. It is about whether the appropriate target of intervention is the body or the environment, about what a decision to select against a trait says to people who have it, and about who is entitled to make that judgment.**Disability rights and enhancement** covers the arguments made by disability scholars and activists against biomedical selection and enhancement, and the responses to them. Neither side wants disabled people to suffer. The dispute concerns whether the appropriate target of intervention is the body or the environment, about what a decision to select against a trait says to people who have it, and about who is entitled to make that judgment. ## The social model## The social model British disability activists in the 1970s drew a distinction that reorganised the field: between *impairment*, a feature of a body, and *disability*, the disadvantage produced when an environment is built for bodies of a different kind. On this account a wheelchair user is not disabled by paralysis but by stairs. The formulation appeared in a 1976 statement by a UK activist organisation and was named the social model by Michael Oliver in the early 1980s.[^oliver1983]British disability activists in the 1970s drew a distinction that reorganised the field, between *impairment*, a feature of a body, and *disability*, the disadvantage produced when an environment is built for bodies of a different kind. On this account stairs, rather than paralysis, are what disable a wheelchair user. The formulation appeared in a 1976 statement by a UK activist organisation and was named the social model by Michael Oliver in the early 1980s.[^oliver1983] The model's practical achievement is large. It moved policy from charity and rehabilitation toward access and civil rights, and it underwrites the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, adopted in 2006, which frames disability as arising from interaction between impairment and barriers rather than as a property of individuals.The model's practical effect has been large. It moved policy from charity and rehabilitation toward access and civil rights, and it underwrites the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, adopted in 2006, which frames disability as arising from interaction between impairment and barriers rather than as a property of individuals. Its strong form — that impairment contributes nothing to disadvantage — is now defended by few scholars, including within disability studies. Chronic pain and progressive conditions are not straightforwardly environmental. The useful version is comparative: for any given impairment, ask how much of the disadvantage is fixed by biology and how much by design, and note that the second share is usually larger than clinicians assume.Few scholars now defend its strong form, which holds that impairment contributes nothing to disadvantage, and that includes scholars within disability studies. Chronic pain and progressive conditions are not straightforwardly environmental. The useful version is comparative. For any given impairment it asks how much of the disadvantage is fixed by biology and how much by design, and it notes that the second share is usually larger than clinicians assume. ## The expressivist objection## The expressivist objection The objection most directly relevant to this wiki concerns selection. Adrienne Asch argued that prenatal testing followed by termination, and by extension [[embryo-selection]], sends a message: that a life with this trait is not worth living, and by implication that existing people with the trait should not exist.[^parens1999]The objection most directly relevant to this wiki concerns selection. Adrienne Asch argued that prenatal testing followed by termination, and by extension [[embryo-selection]], sends a message that a life with this trait is not worth living and, by implication, that existing people with the trait should not exist.[^parens1999] Her sharper version is about information rather than message. A prenatal test reports one fact — the presence of a variant — and a decision is made on that fact alone about a whole future life. Asch called this a part-whole error: a single trait is treated as determining the value of a life that will contain schooling, work, relationships, and everything else. Parents deciding on this basis are not weighing a life; they are weighing a diagnosis.Her sharper version concerns information rather than message. A prenatal test reports one fact, the presence of a variant, and a decision about a whole future life is made on that fact alone. Asch called this a part-whole error: a single trait is treated as determining the value of a life that will contain schooling, work, relationships, and everything else. Parents deciding on this basis weigh a diagnosis in place of a life. Three replies are standard.The standard replies are three. The first distinguishes trait from person. Preferring that a child not have a painful condition is compatible with full respect for people who have it, exactly as preferring that a child not be injured is compatible with respecting injured people.The first distinguishes trait from person. Preferring that a child not have a painful condition is compatible with full respect for people who have it, exactly as preferring that a child not be injured is compatible with respecting injured people. The second appeals to the non-identity structure examined in [[procreative-beneficence]]: selection does not remove anyone, since the alternative to the selected embryo is not a worse life but a different person.The second appeals to the non-identity structure examined in [[procreative-beneficence]]: selection does not remove anyone, since the alternative to the selected embryo is a different person rather than a worse life. The third, developed at length in *From Chance to Choice*, concedes the sociological point while denying the moral one — that selection may in fact reduce social support for disabled people, and that this is a reason to build the support rather than to prohibit the choice.[^buchanan2000]The third, developed at length in *From Chance to Choice*, concedes the sociological point while denying the moral one. It accepts that selection may in fact reduce social support for disabled people, and holds that this is a reason to build the support rather than to prohibit the choice.[^buchanan2000] > [!key] What the objection is not> [!key] What the objection does not claim> It is not a claim that impairments are good, and its leading exponents supported abortion rights. The claim is about the informational and expressive structure of a routinised screening programme, not about individual reproductive liberty.> The objection does not hold that impairments are good, and its leading exponents supported abortion rights. Its target is the informational and expressive structure of a routinised screening programme rather than individual reproductive liberty. ## Deaf and autistic positions## Deaf and autistic positions lines 58–91 → 58–911 unchanged line not shown
Deaf opposition to paediatric cochlear implantation, articulated in a position paper by the US National Association of the Deaf in 1991 and revised subsequently, rests on the claim that Deaf people constitute a linguistic and cultural minority with a full natural language, and that implanting a child amounts to a decision to raise them outside that community. The technical picture has shifted since: outcomes improve markedly with earlier implantation, which forces the decision at an age when the child cannot participate in it, and current position statements are considerably less oppositional than those of the 1990s while still emphasising access to sign language. [[cochlear-implant]] covers the technology and the outcome data.Deaf opposition to paediatric cochlear implantation, articulated in a position paper by the US National Association of the Deaf in 1991 and revised subsequently, rests on the claim that Deaf people constitute a linguistic and cultural minority with a full natural language, and that implanting a child amounts to a decision to raise them outside that community. The technical picture has shifted since: outcomes improve markedly with earlier implantation, which forces the decision at an age when the child cannot participate in it, and current position statements are considerably less oppositional than those of the 1990s while still emphasising access to sign language. [[cochlear-implant]] covers the technology and the outcome data. The inverse case attracted more attention than its size warranted: in 2002 a Deaf American couple deliberately sought a deaf sperm donor, an episode used in the enhancement literature ever since to test whether selecting *for* a trait is different in kind from selecting against it. Most commentators concluded it is not, which is uncomfortable for both camps.The inverse case attracted more attention than its size warranted. In 2002 a Deaf American couple deliberately sought a deaf sperm donor, an episode used in the enhancement literature ever since to test whether selecting *for* a trait is different in kind from selecting against it. Most commentators concluded that it is not, a conclusion uncomfortable for both camps. Autistic advocacy, organised around the concept of neurodiversity that emerged in the late 1990s, has opposed cure-oriented research framing more successfully than any other disability movement. A large autism genetics study launched in the UK in 2021 was paused within weeks after sustained objections from autistic people about consent, data use, and the possibility that the findings would support prenatal screening. The episode demonstrated that community objection can halt a well-funded study, which nothing in the ethics literature had predicted.Autistic advocacy, organised around the concept of neurodiversity that emerged in the late 1990s, has opposed cure-oriented research framing more successfully than any other disability movement. A large autism genetics study launched in the UK in 2021 was paused within weeks after sustained objections from autistic people about consent, data use, and the possibility that the findings would support prenatal screening. The episode showed that community objection can halt a well-funded study, an outcome nothing in the ethics literature had predicted. ## Cure and accommodation## Cure and accommodation The two responses to impairment are not exclusive, and the argument between them is mostly about allocation and default.The two responses to impairment can coexist, and the argument between them is mostly about allocation and default. Accommodation has a strong record. Curb cuts, captioning, and screen readers deliver benefits at low cost, immediately, to everyone with the relevant need, and often to people without it. Cure has produced genuine results for some conditions and none for most; the technologies in [[retinal-implant]] restore very limited function after decades of work, while [[limb-regeneration]] remains far from human application.Accommodation has a strong record. Curb cuts, captioning, and screen readers deliver benefits at low cost, immediately, to everyone with the relevant need, and often to people without it. Cure has produced genuine results for some conditions and none for most; the technologies in [[retinal-implant]] restore very limited function after decades of work, while [[limb-regeneration]] remains far from human application. The allocation objection is that enhancement and cure research absorbs resources and attention that accessibility would use better, and that it is chosen by funders partly because it promises a technical fix rather than a social one. Ashley Shew's term for the resulting pattern — technoableism, the presentation of technology as making disabled people acceptable rather than making society accessible — has been widely adopted in disability studies.[^shew2023]The allocation objection is that enhancement and cure research absorbs resources and attention that accessibility would use better, and that it is chosen by funders partly because it promises a technical fix rather than a social one. Ashley Shew's term for the resulting pattern, technoableism, describes the presentation of technology as making disabled people acceptable rather than making society accessible; it has been widely adopted in disability studies.[^shew2023] There is a countervailing observation. Disabled people are the first and often the only users of most of the technologies this wiki covers. [[brain-computer-interface]] research is conducted almost entirely with participants who have paralysis or ALS; [[myoelectric-prosthetics]], [[exoskeleton]] systems, and [[deep-brain-stimulation]] were all developed for clinical populations. Treating enhancement research as opposed to disabled people's interests misdescribes a field in which they are the primary beneficiaries and, in the case of implanted-device trials, bear most of the risk. High abandonment rates for advanced prosthetic hands are the field's standing evidence that devices designed without user priorities fail regardless of their capability.Against this stands an observation: disabled people are the first and often the only users of most of the technologies this wiki covers. [[brain-computer-interface]] research is conducted almost entirely with participants who have paralysis or ALS; [[myoelectric-prosthetics]], [[exoskeleton]] systems, and [[deep-brain-stimulation]] were all developed for clinical populations. Treating enhancement research as opposed to disabled people's interests misdescribes a field in which they are the primary beneficiaries and, in the case of implanted-device trials, bear most of the risk. High abandonment rates for advanced prosthetic hands are the field's standing evidence that devices designed without user priorities fail regardless of their capability. ## The moving baseline## The moving baseline Enhancement raises a distinct problem that selection does not. Disability is defined relative to a norm, and enhancement moves the norm.Enhancement raises a distinct problem that selection does not. Disability is defined relative to a norm, and enhancement moves the norm. If pharmacological or genetic augmentation of some capacity became widespread, people at today's median would be below the new median, and environments would be built for the enhanced. The mechanism is familiar from literacy: in a society where nearly everyone reads, being unable to read is disabling in a way it was not when nobody could. Whether this counts as an argument against enhancement or merely as a prediction about what accommodation will be needed depends on whether one thinks the enhanced society is also richer in the resources to accommodate — which is the same disagreement, unresolved, that runs through [[enhancement-arms-race]] and [[access-and-inequality]].If pharmacological or genetic augmentation of some capacity became widespread, people at today's median would be below the new median, and environments would be built for the enhanced. The mechanism is familiar from literacy: in a society where nearly everyone reads, being unable to read is disabling in a way it was not when nobody could. Whether this counts as an argument against enhancement or merely as a prediction about what accommodation will be needed depends on whether one thinks the enhanced society is also richer in the resources to accommodate. The same unresolved disagreement runs through [[enhancement-arms-race]] and [[access-and-inequality]]. > [!debate] Whose judgment counts> [!debate] Whose judgment counts> Non-disabled people consistently rate life with a given impairment as worse than disabled people rate their own lives, a discrepancy documented in quality-of-life research and known as the disability paradox.[^albrecht1999] Since selection decisions are made by prospective parents who are usually not disabled, and health-economic weightings are derived largely from general-population surveys, the ratings driving both are the ones that adaptation shows to be mistaken.> Non-disabled people consistently rate life with a given impairment as worse than disabled people rate their own lives, a discrepancy documented in quality-of-life research and known as the disability paradox.[^albrecht1999] Since selection decisions are made by prospective parents who are usually not disabled, and health-economic weightings are derived largely from general-population surveys, the ratings driving both are the ones that adaptation shows to be mistaken. ## Open problems## Open problems The severity gradient is the question neither side has answered. Almost nobody defends selection against traits with minimal effect on wellbeing, and almost nobody objects to preventing conditions causing early death with constant pain. Between those poles there is no principle, only case-by-case judgment made by parents with a few days to decide and a clinician's summary to decide from.Neither side has answered the question of the severity gradient. Almost nobody defends selection against traits with minimal effect on wellbeing, and almost nobody objects to preventing conditions causing early death with constant pain. Between those poles there is no principle, only case-by-case judgment made by parents with a few days to decide and a clinician's summary to decide from. Nor is it settled whether the expressivist objection survives the shift from single-gene testing to [[polygenic-embryo-screening]], which produces probabilities across many traits at once rather than a diagnosis. A parent selecting on an aggregate score is not making a judgment about any particular condition, which arguably defuses the message — or generalises it, since the profile being selected against is now a whole distribution of human variation rather than one identified disease.Nor is it settled whether the expressivist objection survives the shift from single-gene testing to [[polygenic-embryo-screening]], which produces probabilities across many traits at once rather than a diagnosis. A parent selecting on an aggregate score makes no judgment about any particular condition, which arguably defuses the message. It may instead generalise it, since the profile being selected against is now a whole distribution of human variation rather than one identified disease. ## See also## See also removed, struck through added, underlinedLine numbers count the serialised markdown of each revision, frontmatter included.
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